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Human Development

Human Development

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Throughout the twentieth century, valuable research has been carried out in studies related to intellectual, emotional, faith, moral, and biological development of human beings. Notable scholars who have studied these stages extensively are Erikson, Fowler and Kohlberg. It is important for a person to have adequate knowledge of these stages at least at a basic level to have a better understanding of one’s self.

Development theory proposed by Erik Erikson was the extension of five stages development theory of Freud and proposed 8 stages in human life with respect to the development. In the proposed theory, Erickson stresses social and cultural interaction in conjunction with the biological maturation as a driving force in these stages. In each stage, the outcome is dominated by a basic conflict, whether a more negative or positive resolution forming grounds for the upcoming stages. In the eight stages of development proposed by Erik Erickson, one stage is “Young Adult” in which an individual develops the capability to receive and give love and start to develop understanding and ability to make long term commitment in relationships. In this stage, a person is either wants to have intimacy or isolation and is in a constant struggle in defining his role in these two behavioral extremes. Generally, a person lives in this stage between the age of 19-40 and in case of success in this stage, a person finds fulfilment and happiness in relationships ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rEURPpnQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Intimacy vs. Isolation}, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Intimacy vs. Isolation, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":374,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/GF6J9TCW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/GF6J9TCW"],"itemData":{"id":374,"type":"webpage","abstract":"Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. Learn what happens during this stage.","container-title":"Verywell Mind","language":"en","title":"Intimacy vs. Isolation: Forming Intimate Relationships With Others","title-short":"Intimacy vs. Isolation","URL":"https://www.verywellmind.com/intimacy-versus-isolation-2795739","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Intimacy vs. Isolation, n.d.). In case of failure, isolation and loneliness are the outcomes. During this stage, forming loving and intimate relationships with other people is the main idea around which major conflict in this period revolves. Based on my age and other tendencies of behaviors related to intimacy and isolation, I find myself in this stage of human development as proposed by Eric Erickson.

Lawrence Kohlberg has worked on the human moral development stages and expanded the works of Jean Piaget. He defined that there are three stages of human moral development called pre-conventional, conventional and finally post-conventional. According to Kohlberg, at the post-conventional stage of human moral development, the sense of human morality is based on more abstract ideas and principles of life and are defined accordingly ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pyIertkt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Kohlberg\\uc0\\u8217{}s Stages of Moral Development | Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner}, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development | Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":376,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/6UYXP42L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/6UYXP42L"],"itemData":{"id":376,"type":"webpage","title":"Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development | Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner","URL":"https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development | Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner, n.d.). In this stage, a person develops an understanding and moral sense which motivates him to judge actions based on their epistemology and fulfilment of natural requirements and needs. A person now believes that some laws and rules are just and some are unjust based on his moral development. I find myself in the post-conventional stage of human moral development because of my ideological, logical and psychological maturity to differentiate between good and bad, write and wrong, and just and unjust.

James Fowler studied the faith development of human beings and defined six stages of human faith development. These six stages are Intuitive project faith, Mythic-literal, Synthetic-conventional, Individuative-reflective faith, conjunctive and finally universalizing faith. As far as my state of faith is concerned, I find myself in the stage of Individuative-reflective of faith which is the 4th stage of development. This stage identifies the transition of a person in late adolescence and it is not defined by other’s values and goals but according to the increased responsibility of one’s own lifestyle and beliefs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ai9bNZkd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}What Stage is Your Faith? | Rachael Popcak and Dr. Gregory Popcak}, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(What Stage is Your Faith? | Rachael Popcak and Dr. Gregory Popcak, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":380,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/Y64Y6TLQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5OlhLovK/items/Y64Y6TLQ"],"itemData":{"id":380,"type":"webpage","title":"What Stage is Your Faith? | Rachael Popcak and Dr. Gregory Popcak","URL":"https://www.patheos.com/blogs/faithonthecouch/2014/05/what-stage-is-your-faith/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (What Stage is Your Faith? | Rachael Popcak and Dr. Gregory Popcak, n.d.). A person who undergoes this stage of faith development form an understanding of their own ideology as well as other external factors that are responsible for this. Also, he views and understands the ideology and visions of others in the same way. As I believe that I am going through this stage of development, I can identify that rituals and symbols are way different than before and have much more to do with my personality and character than mere rituals.

As far as my struggle related to this state is concerned, I often find myself in a development conflict the needs to be resolved. The major conflict surrounding my development stage in the young adult stage is intimacy versus isolation which keeps me in a continuous intriguing state. The main question that originates in the mind of a person actively going through such conflict is will I be alone or will I be loved? To be able to get through this stage successfully, a person must adopt some behavioral changes in personality to be able to develop more close, intimate and long-lasting relationships in the future. I often struggle in forging closeness and emotional intimacy with loved ones and friends and making long-term commitments. It is important to commit for a long term to others giving love and affection if one wants to develop a strong relationship. It is observed that people who suffer in developing the previous stages of development of identity versus confusion stage, often have less commitment in relationships and are more likely to face difficulties in the form of depression, loneliness and emotional isolation.

A person’s life direction has a significant influence of culture, faith and life experiences and these factors play an important part in human development. As far as faith is concerned, everybody develops a sense of belief in things which are conventional and synthetic. Having internalized faith principles and ideas from early childhood, when a person wants to practice and implement them in his life during early adolescence, he finds many oppositions in society. Same is the case with me, where I feel that I need a more welcoming and accepting social group to support my practices and beliefs.

Cultural influences are very significant in human development stages. Cultures are shaped by ecologies and they influence the development of personalities. There exist some culture-specific and universal aspect of variation in personalities. Cultural-specific aspects include collectivism, individualism, complexity and tightness. It is transmitted by modelling of behavior and language when conditions are such to permit people to communicate through a shared language, when they are in close proximity with each other and when they share the same place to live. The model of cultural impacts on human development cannot be understood well if biological factors are not taken into considerations. There are considerable links between personality development and socialization practices within the community or society and they impact the overall personality building and character development. As an example, the interaction of parents impacts the world view and perception of a child.

Studies reveal that if parents have an understanding and accepting behavior, their kids become more emotionally stable, sociable, have high self-esteem and a positive world view. On the other hand, if parents are not welcoming and accepting, their kids tend to grow up as adults who are unstable, have a negative world-view, immature, unresponsive hostile and immaturely dependent. While talking about the effects of culture and societies in the human development and the ways in which a person defines a path in his life, it is important to consider whether the culture is based on collectivism or individualism. Individuals growing up in an individualistic environment tend to be highly motivated by success and influenced by high completion as compared to collectivism based society. These are some of the cultural aspects of influence on human development that are important to consider while studying philosophy of human life.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Intimacy vs. Isolation: Forming Intimate Relationships With Others. (n.d.). Verywell Mind. Retrieved January 17, 2020, from https://www.verywellmind.com/intimacy-versus-isolation-2795739

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development | Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner. (n.d.). Retrieved January 17, 2020, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development/

What Stage is Your Faith? | Rachael Popcak and Dr. Gregory Popcak. (n.d.). Retrieved January 17, 2020, from https://www.patheos.com/blogs/faithonthecouch/2014/05/what-stage-is-your-faith/

Triandis, H. C., & Suh, E. M. (2002). Cultural influences on personality. Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 133-160.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

Inductive Generalization And Analogy

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Inductive generalization

Although inductive generalization is the commonly adopted method for conducting polls and surveys, but all polls are not reliable. To assess the reliability of the polls, it is important to consider the procedures used. The polls that use larger sample size such as 600,000 people increases the probability of correct outcomes. With a larger sample size, the probability error declines that means larger deviation is rare CITATION Enr16 \l 1033 (Scalas & Georgiou, 2016).

Polls and survey are important in medical research because the results are used by healthcare organizations, agencies, and governments to learn the core issues. Poll results are capable of influencing the decisions of the policymakers regarding important medical issues such as prices of drugs, demand for expanded medical aid in deprived communities or most common diseases needing attention CITATION Enr16 \l 1033 (Scalas & Georgiou, 2016).

Public opinion polls are nonbiased views of masses regarding certain topic or area of interest. They explain particular viewpoints of the population and the reasons behind those beliefs.

Inductive reasoning is sometimes confused with deductive reasoning. When inductive reasoning moves to the generalized conclusion it is mistaken for the deductive categorical reasoning that focuses on finding generalized principles. The accuracy of inductive reasoning used in polls is doubted because this kind of reasoning relies on a cause-and-effect relationship.

Both methods emphasize on finding the reasons and both attempts to find generalized conclusions. The inductive reasoning relies on a bottom-up approach while deductive reasoning uses a top-down approach. Inductive reasoning is based on the patterns of the trend while deductive reasoning considers facts, truth, and rules CITATION Has16 \l 1033 (Zalaghi & Khazaei, 2016).

The analogy breakdown involves concluding specific examples relying on the similarities. The choices are made on the basis of pre-existing examples. The judgments made in inductive reasoning depends on the pattern of the trend on observations that leads to the prediction of an event.

References

Scalas, E., & Georgiou, N. (2016). Can opinion polls ever be accurate? Probably not. Retrieved 02 05, 2019, from http://theconversation.com/can-opinion-polls-ever-be-accurate-probably-not-61097

Zalaghi, H., & Khazaei, M. (2016). The Role of Deductive and Inductive Reasoning in Accounting Research and Standard Setting. Asian Journal of Finance & Accounting, 8 (1).

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Introduction To Psychology

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Part A

Although the film "Beautiful Mind" is a biography film of John Nash, a schizophrenic patient, but also with the color of the movie story, the film did not state how John Nash got sick at the beginning, and the state at the time of onset. Instead, it increases the artistry of the film in a suspenseful way. If the audience didn't watch the whole film, at the beginning of the film, he couldn't think of his prodigal roommate Charles Herman, and the little girl Marcy. The superior William Pacher who gave him the task was his fantasy figure. Everything looks so True and trustworthy. Nash fancied that there were Soviets to kill him, to shut himself down in a dark room, to be afraid of the lights at night, and to imagine that the killers would be bad for his wife and asked her to go to her sister's house to take refuge. His wife, Alicia, felt that Nash’s behavior was too abnormal, and she called Dr. Rosen, a doctor at MacArthur Psychiatric Hospital. When Nash gave a speech at the Harvard National Mathematical Symposium, he treated Dr. Rosen as a spy killer of the Soviet Union and tried to escape. Dr. Rosen took control of him and injected him with a tranquilizer before he took it. He was taken to a mental hospital.

Since then, we have learned that Nash suffers from schizophrenia. When we think about the behaviors of Nash in the previous film, we can see that there are many details that reflect the signs and manifestations of Nash schizophrenia. According to DSM-IV the criteria for schizophrenia including delusions, illusions/ Hallucinations, emotional monotony and lack of will power and all are clear in this movie.

Delusion: delusion is a strange thought in the patient's mind that is related to oneself or others, mainly including control of delusions, victimization, relationship delusions, suspected delusions, etc. From the film we can know that the main expression of Nash is to control delusions. And the murderer delusion. Nash believes that his body has been injected with LEDs that can display numbers; when Nash attends the banquet and marries, he feels that someone is monitoring him; these are control delusions. Nash’s manifestation of murder is mainly reflected in the fact that after imagining that he was chased by Soviet Russian spies, he kept himself in a dark room, afraid of lighting, paying close attention to the movement outside the window, fearing that his wife was killed because of himself; When Dr. Rosen wanted to send him to a mental hospital for treatment, Nash thought that Rosen was a Soviet spy, wanted to kill him and struggled to resist. (Green, Horan & Lee, 2015). When he treated his second relapse at home, he fancied that William Pachcher wanted him to make up his mind to kill his wife and children. These are the manifestations of Nash's murder.

Illusion: In the film, most of the plot is a manifestation of Nash's fantasy. Nash fantasies three characters: roommate Charles, little girl Matthew and Defense Department official William Pach. The film truly shows how real the illusion in the eyes of a schizophrenic patient is. Both illusion and auditory hallucination are an aspect of Nash's illusion. He can see them clearly and talk to them. When Nash studied at Princeton University, he had an illusion. Charles is an image of Nash's deep consciousness. (Klosterkötter, Steinmeyer & Schultze-Lutter, 2001). Charles's character is completely opposite to Nash, and often appears when Nash needs it. When Nash can't think of the theory of the thesis, he is not willing to fail, and when the pain hits the wall; when Nash finally completes a major breakthrough in theory and is appreciated by the instructor. And when Nash participated in the National Mathematical Seminar, when Dr. Rosen took the treatment, and so on. The little girl Matthew is the performance of Nash's inner female experience. Nash is not good at communication and has poor communication with women, but he also desires to be loved. Matthew is also the key to making Nash finally realize that he is sick. Because Matthew did not grow up from the beginning to the end, Nash understood that Charles, Matthew and William are just their own illusions. Defense Department official William Pacher, a character transformed by Nash's heroic plot, Nash is convinced that he was appointed by the Ministry of Defense to help the country save the people from Soviet attacks by breaking the password. This is actually something that does not exist at all. In the film, when Nash returned to the Wheeler Research Office from the Ministry of Defense, he said: If I am hot, who will save the world? From this sentence we can see Nash's inner heroism.

Emotional monotony: People with schizophrenia often have some emotional disorders. Emotional retardation and apathy, emotional response and thinking content and external stimuli do not cooperate, is an important feature of schizophrenia. Most of the emotional disorders are strong reactions caused by hallucinations and delusions, manifested as excitement, excitement, nervousness, fear, anxiety, depression, or sudden emotional outbursts. Moreover, as the disease progresses, emotional apathy and apathy often become the main cause of the patient. symptom. Such as Nash's excitement and excitement when he received an invitation from the Ministry of Defense officials, the tension and fear of being chased by Soviet agents, and the fear and anxiety that his personal safety was violated, as well as old friends visiting and sitting still. Holding the crying child, he has no reaction, etc. Nash's behaviors are consistent with the above performance. (Siris, 1991).

Lack of willpower: As a schizophrenia patient, Nash lacks interest in external things, does not take the initiative to participate in activities, often in meditation; does not touch people, is isolated, completely out of reality. This was reflected in the first act of the film. When the instructor gave a welcome speech, Nash looked down at the corner, lonely and sitting faceless; Nash often had a corner in the library. People think about problems, and so on are all manifestations of his lack of willpower.

From the description of the film and the above analysis of the Nash disease, we can judge that John Nash's schizophrenia is a paranoid schizophrenia characterized by stable paranoia.

Part b

1. I think the important factor in objecting “good guards” is a kind of experiment and due to the nature of experiment they need to be strict and brutal for example prisoner #416 refused to eat and give threat of hunger strike but prisoner punished him due to this thing and tell other prisoners to bang and shout over him for his behavior.

2.The student at some point believed that this is a true experiment not the designed study and they start behaving like the actual prisoners. They were turned fearful for them and some of their sounds were representation their behavior. And due to stress and fear they were discussing with each other what is going on and what kind of behavior they may suffer in jail.

3.The harsh treatment was done by the bad guards including; bad treatment, being sprayed, shouting, or using fire extinguisher to spray on them. Prisoners were able to distinguish between good and bad guards due to their character and behavior. (Zimbardo, 2016).

4.Yes, it is unethical behavior the reason behind is the research. It conducted in jail and in psychological researches consent is must here no consent is used neither it is disclosed to people who contributed during research that it is not real just an experiment.

References

Green, M. F., Horan, W. P., & Lee, J. (2015). Social cognition in schizophrenia. Nature Reviews

Neuroscience, 16(10), 620.

Klosterkötter, J., Hellmich, M., Steinmeyer, E. M., & Schultze-Lutter, F. (2001). Diagnosing

schizophrenia in the initial prodromal phase. Archives of general psychiatry, 58(2), 158-164.

Miller, T. J., McGlashan, T. H., Woods, S. W., Stein, K., Driesen, N., Corcoran, C. M., ... &

Davidson, L. (1999). Symptom assessment in schizophrenic prodromal states. Psychiatric Quarterly, 70(4), 273-287.

Siris, S. G. (1991). Diagnosis of secondary depression in schizophrenia: implications for DSM-

IV. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 17(1), 75-98.

Zimbardo, P. G., Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Jaffe, D. (1971). Stanford prison experiment.

Zimbardo, Incorporated.

Zimbardo, P. (2016). Revisiting the Stanford prison experiment: A lesson in the power of

situation. Perspectives on Contemporary Issues, 309-317.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

Introduction To Western Philosophy

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Introduction to Western Philosophy

Western philosophy has traditionally been traced back to a Greek writer named Thales, who is famous for predicting the eclipse of 585 BCE. Plato mentions him in Theaetetus and Chaucer mentions him in “The Miller’s Tale.” In both instances, Thales is reported to have been walking across a field, observing the heavens, when he fell into a pit or well. Western philosophy originated in ancient Greece and is represented by its most influential schools of philosophy, those of Aristotle and Plato (Russell). The contemporary philosophy, Objectivism, discovered by Ayn Rand, has its roots in the ideas of Aristotle.

Questions are the essence of philosophy. The more difficult a question is to answer, the more ‘philosophical’ that question is. Philosophical questions can be taken as ‘proto-questions’ — questions with many answers, none of which have become permanently definitive or conclusive (yet) in human history. For example:

What exists (what is existence? what does it mean to exist?)?

What is reality? What are the mind and body?

Who and what am I? What is the meaning of (my) life?

What can I know? How can I know it?

Each of these philosophical (proto-)questions and others like them has many philosophies as answers to choose from. Anyone who believes their ‘philosophy of life’ can be fully presented in less than a lifetime is delusional. The answers to philosophical proto-questions are always unfolding and becoming, evolving, and transforming, always changing for each of us as individuals as well as for societies and cultures. For a mature and truly rational human individual, ‘their philosophy of life’ is a moving target: there are only two rational answers — ongoing communication (with frequent pauses for listening) or silence (broken only with caution and discretion after listening for a significantly longer spell).

Western answers to philosophical proto-questions tend to be analytic, positivist, and scientismic. Eastern answers lean more toward being, presence, and transcendence. One eschews or rejects metaphysics while the other accepts or embraces it. Each has elements of the other (mandorla, yin-yang, etc.), but these differences do very broadly apply.

Works Cited:

Russell, Bertrand. History of western philosophy: Collectors edition. Routledge, 2013.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Is It The Form Or The Function That Makes Something Art?

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Is it the form or the function that makes something art?

In the domains of art and architecture, it is a common debate that is the form of a piece of art more significant in lending it the artistic features or is it the function? Most of the time, it is believed that form follows the function of art. Here, the function would entail its architectural design, the purpose it serves, and the extent to which it disseminates its message. Everyday common objects that are utilitarian in their true essence but also have aesthetic features can be classified as functional art. This variety of art is highly remarkable as it can encompass a wide variety of objects and things. Pieces of art that have a form and also serve some basic functions are considered as highly artistic creations and are appreciated but the debate whether it is the form or, the function that categorizes something as art remains to invoke feelings of curiosity and wonder.

The ideal scenario entails that when a person looks at a piece of art, he might wonder, “What might be the artist going through when he was sketching a design for this piece of art?” or, “How is this piece of art affecting me?”, “Am I moved by it?”, “Is it communicating with me, or persuading me to do something?”

Philosophy advocates that an individual piece of art cannot be assigned a specific function but the artist may have a pre-determined purpose or intention in mind, according to which he has curated that art. The form can mean different things for different people, but primarily it indicates the physical aspects and nature of an artwork. The two major types of form are geometric and organic. However, the meaning of this element goes beyond superficial implications.

At its core, this paper asks that is it the form or function which classifies something as art? This question is also prescribed in the lecture video and the supporting images corroborate the basic query CITATION Cra19 \l 1033 (Titus).

Many artists who believe that form should follow function propound that the design of any piece of art must be a reflection of its activities and basic purposes. A form is generally regarded as an outer facade and it identifies the basic attributes of an artistic piece. A form can lend a specific character to art and distinguishes it from other things which it is not. In any architectural manifestation, the form expresses what is inside something classified as art and also gives it an expression of the inner life. For example, if there are statues of spiritual and national heroes planted in the middle of a road and tend to have a powerful effect on the passersby, the underlying purpose is to commemorate the spirit and ideals of the heroes. In this example, the effect that those huge statues are creating can be described as the form and the intended commemoration is the function of these pieces of art.

According to me, it is the form which assists our perception to classify something as art. The form can deliver the message behind a work of art and if it is a building, it can illuminate people about the concept behind its existence even if someone does not enter it. Take the example of a chair and if you look at things from a historical perspective, its form was designed before. The function of a chair was then determined from its form. Apart from other elements, form significantly stands out as it harmoniously aligns with the style and texture among other things and designates the particular purpose or function of a piece of art.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY The Philosophy of Art. Perf. Craig Titus. 2019. YouTube.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Is It The Whole Picture Or Just The Form Alone That Makes Art What It Is?

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Is it the whole picture or just the form alone that makes art what it is?

Manifestations of art or simply making works of art, in its broadest sense, has been a need of mankind since ancient times. Humans have been involved in some unceasing efforts to recreate nature’s beauty and for this purpose, people tend to draw, dance, write, capture photos, make movies, etc. Some strains of philosophy also maintain that art is a form of communication and for a significant chunk of people, art has a very special place in their lives.

According to me, art is simply the fragmentation of an individual’s thoughts and feelings. There are many elements about a thing, a picture, a thought, an object that can help us classify it as art and in this paper, I’ll be revolving my basic premise around it.

Why do I think what art does for me?

What makes something ‘art’? Or, how does it become ‘art’? CITATION Cra13 \l 1033 (Titus)

There is a vast spectrum of human activities that can be classified as art. Each one of these acts or activities is specific to the performer’s techniques and inherent skills but there are some features common in every manifestation of art.

Art assists in expressing one’s imagination. Even though every piece of art has a lot of room for interpretation, an artist has the liberty to pre-determine the meanings of artwork. If we look through a micro-lens, art supports a smooth communication between the artist and the audience or between any two people who are exchanging pieces of art between them. If a person writes a poem and presents it to his or her partner, the underlying motivation behind this action is the communication of heartfelt feelings.

There are seven basic and essential elements of art and form is one of them. The form can mean different things for different people, but primarily it indicates the physical aspects and nature of an artwork. The two major types of form are geometric and organic. However, the meaning of this element goes beyond superficial implications.

This paper, at its core, asks that is it the whole picture or just the form alone which classifies something as art? If we are taking the example of a visual illustration, one can identify a picture as art if it tends to communicate with the viewer but the element of form cannot be ignored in most of the cases. One has to conduct a formal analysis and then, it can easily be determined whether a picture is a piece of art or not.

In the lecture video, there is a mention of the Mona Lisa painting. Let’s take it as an example. Mona Lisa is regarded as a masterpiece of the Renaissance period because it played a central role in exuding feelings of mystery and wonder in people and communicated with them in ways that could not be imagined before. This painting is a topic of controversy even today and rightly so because the artist used the element of the form in such a way that lent a timeless character to the painting. The form can be thought about in a lot of ways, for instance, it can take up an implied meaning or a real meaning. If an artist creates a balance or intensifies either the highlights or shadows of a picture, the form is accentuated. Some artists who incorporate philosophical elements in their works also opine that art is what you see until you see that it is not that anymore. The intended audience or the viewer can pinpoint what classifies as art for them but in a lot of cases, artists create or treat the form of a picture in the pursuit of modifying natural appearances which can convey a profound sensitivity to the work of art.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY The Philosophy of Art. Perf. Craig Titus. 2013. YouTube.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 2 Words: 600

JS Mill’s Utilitarianism

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Mill’s Utilitarianism

Mill was particularly interested in finding solid ways of working when the values ​​of individual freedom and the common good are at odds. In particular, he dealt with Freedom(1859) the extent to which the state and state power are entitled to restrict an individual's freedom and interfere with his or her choices. The questions and arguments raised by Mill remain relevant, even though his theories were heavily entwined with the political issues and changes that surfaced in mid-19th century Victorian Britain. In her writings on individual freedom, Mill also takes a stand on women's rights, which she also advocated as a Member of Parliament. In this political thinking, he sets himself up to represent a much more equal perspective among his contemporary philosophers.

Mill’s conception of morality

Mill justifies the moral value of actions by their usefulness. True, unlike his predecessors, he does not reduce utility to selfish pleasure. His ethics also speaks of the principle of altruism, although the objective grounds for the transition of egoism to its opposite, altruism, are not disclosed. In continuation of the line of moral philosophy, which goes from Aristotle and Epicurus, and contrary to Kantianism, Mill displays morality as having a composite ultimate human goal. Each person seeks to satisfy his desires, and human happiness lies in pure, long and continuous pleasure. Thus, utilitarianism is a theory directed against selfishness, i.e. against the point of view that kindness is the satisfaction of a person with his interests (Harsanyi656).

Mill’s conception of enlightenment

Mill could be said the "maverick of freedom" . He considers that "the individual is not accountable to society for his actions as long as they do not concern the interests of any other person than himself" Thus society does not have on this point to legislate. Freedom is the protection against all constraint, the most formidable of all being that of a public opinion which wants to impose its customs and its beliefs. Freedom is not the law of numbers. On the other hand, the individual must be accountable for acts prejudicial to the interests of others. Political freedom is first and foremost participation in power and Mill is deeply democratic. He defends a representative democracy where all currents are represented and not just the majority. Minorities should be heard with a chance to triumph by the force of their arguments if they conform to reason. In addition to ethical and political questions, Mill's work addresses the problems of knowledge: he is one of the last English empiricists, thinking that the only foundation of knowledge is experience. (Mill 40)

Critique to one’s society

The state must make education compulsory even if Mill does not oppose the existence of private schools for fear of standardizing ideas. We must coordinate the individual interest. Thus, trade must be a social act whose end is to serve the general interest. The state should not have too many tasks because it would increase its power. Large companies are therefore left to the private sector. Mill is wary of the central state hence the idea that the municipalities must ensure the tasks (maintenance of roads, canals). The state must help individual efforts and provide the necessary relief. Mill is not an ultra-liberal: faced with the weakness of the people, the state must act (Mulgan 175). Those who have earned more should not be penalized (for example, by too much tax on large fortunes), but, conversely, children must make efforts for their inheritance. In the absence of a direct heir, the inheritances must revert to the state.

Mill will devote herself to the emancipation of women. The demand for the right to vote for women was one of the conditions for accepting to be a candidate for Westminster in 1865. He wished to demonstrate the need to grant women equality with men at a time when, In England, husbands considered their wives as something to serve their purpose. Mill believes that women's right to vote will have the dual benefit of allowing women to become interested in politics and making them aware of their responsibility. Mill recognizes the utopian socialists of the time ( Saint-Simon , Owen , Fourier) the merit of having proclaimed the total equality of men and women. Mill therefore appears as a liberal influenced by social goals.

Work cited

Harsanyi, John C. "Morality and the theory of rational behavior." Social research (1977): 623-

656.

Mill, John Stuart. Utilitarianism. Longmans, Green and Company, 1895.40-43

Mulgan, Tim. Understanding utilitarianism. Routledge, 2014.175-177

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Judaism

Judaism

Question 1

Jews find meaning in many ways such as in God, Creation and Human existence. Their belief in God depicts that Jews must not engage in actions that disrespect God. They have a duty to follow the teachings of God such as doing good to others. It states “embracing God beyond time and space”. They rely on this ideology because it states that Jews are better than other people. They must treat humans with respect and love. Jews have faith in justice that encourage them to avoid practices that are unfair or unjust. Justice is of supreme importance in Judaism, having its roots in faith. They follow this philosophy for making this world a peaceful place for living. Social justice stresses on preventing the suffering of the poor. one must follow the laws of God for promoting justice and equality. Social justice is also linked to the maintenance of law and order that treats all people equally. The concept of justice also reflects the provision of equal opportunities to the people irrespective of their backgrounds or gender. Judaism encouraged women to take active roles in communal life.

Morality is another important aspects of Judaism that highlights the moral duty of Jews. The philosophy of morality explains that Jews have an obligation to do good to the people. They must choose what is right and virtuous such as helping humankind. Their moral duty prevents them from doing wrong such as lying, stealing or causing harm to others.

Question 2

The Ten Commitments show how Jews continued to develop ideas for addressing true freedom in modern times. The concept of transformation and healing allow people in modern times to overcome their sufferings and pain. Their faith in God and religion assist them in handling situations of disappointment and hopelessness. The commitment teaches Jews "to spend more time each day in aw and wonder at the grandeur of creation". The second commitment: idolatry provides guidance to the Jews for becoming aware of the sufferings and social realities of the society. This help people of modern times to build a connection with religion and ideologies that explain the purpose of human existence. This convinces humans to remain aware of reality and contribute to the totality of the universe. People can learn that true freedom is based on the absence of violence, lies, sexual exploitation, stealing and other social ills.

The third commitment explains the connection of Jews with God. The universe is created by God so people must fulfil their responsibilities towards the people and the creator of the universe. The fourth commitment stresses on observing the Sabbath. It is a day when people will be judged according to their actions. It focuses on spiritual development and personal renewal. People in modern times use this commitment to understanding their responsibility towards society and prevent themselves from hurting others. The commitments also refrain people from murdering others. this is used by jews of modern society to stop themselves for causing harm to others. they know that murdering is sinful so they avoid violence. They have realized that violence is against the spiritual nourishment and is the result of evilness. The Ten Commitments also highlight teachings of Judaism that encourage humans to do good such as avoiding acts of stealing, sexual exploitation and lying. One must not lie because it is disliked by God. Similarly, people of model society can adopt positive behaviors by considering the principles of Ten Commitments. These are crucial for the maintenance of law and order by preventing people from doing wrongful acts.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Kant Final Draft

Brianny Gomez

Enter the name of Instructor

Philosophy

September 11, 2019.

Kant- Final draft

Philosophers across the divide appear to believe that morality among humans is determined by rationality. This rationality is reflected in making decisions and working upon them. Immanuel Kant’s approach to morality stands a little different to many philosophers. He has based his philosophy over moral sensibility, heteronomy, happiness, and hedonism. Kant believes such factors choose between human motivation and choices. His theory of human morality is pillared upon human decision and practicability. This essay, therefore, analyzes Kant’s conception of morality and enlightenment and how it critiques one’s society.

Kant’s conception of Morality

Moral philosophy addresses the issues related to human morality. It gives basis to human morality and throws light on how to achieve end goals. These end goals require moral obligations and ethical approaches to converge upon what moral philosophy encourages. Kant has emphasized upon preliminary human values and ethical responsibilities in his work: “Groundwork in the metaphysics of morals”. From this work of Kant, it appears quite obvious that human agent is forced by factors of human socializing and decisiveness ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LMFLpbno","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kant and Schneewind)","plainCitation":"(Kant and Schneewind)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":108,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NUINQKGK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NUINQKGK"],"itemData":{"id":108,"type":"book","title":"Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals","publisher":"Yale University Press","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Kant","given":"Immanuel"},{"family":"Schneewind","given":"Jerome B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kant and Schneewind). In his theories about human morals, he argues that the ultimate goal of human decisions should be to please one’s own self and others. For him, this is practical and gives authentication to an individual’s life goals. He is a believer of the fact that human morality in itself is a virtue related to an individual’s happiness. Kant has not only restricted himself to these aspects of morality rather, but he also opines that not at every time, human agent’s happiness is dependent on morals and virtues ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zeP1cNgs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kant and Schneewind)","plainCitation":"(Kant and Schneewind)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":108,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NUINQKGK"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/NUINQKGK"],"itemData":{"id":108,"type":"book","title":"Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals","publisher":"Yale University Press","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Kant","given":"Immanuel"},{"family":"Schneewind","given":"Jerome B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kant and Schneewind).

Many modern theorists who have worked on exploring moral psychology idealizes Kant’s moral philosophy. They have added a new dimension to his work but with a little contrast. For example, some believe that human actions are dependent on morals but to a limit. Others believe that human actions are inherently dependent on morals, and this is how a social structure evolves. Kant’s philosophy about human action is generally attributed to his work on metaphysics of human morality. The metaphysics were based on moral sensibility, ideals of humanity and ideas of religion. Relevant to this, his theory revolved around respect for morals and human values. His ideas of life, social structure, and life goals are particularly based on human virtues. For him, human actions cannot work in vacuum, it is therefore indispensable for humans to tailor their conduct over his moral philosophies. Other than building a better social structure, Kant’s moral principles assure self-motivation.

Reath argues that Kant views this admiration for morality as a major factor for self-motivation and human decisiveness. Therefore, respect for morality can be witnessed as the respect of authority. In Kant’s theory of happiness, with reference to heteronomy and hedonism, non-moral motivation is unacceptable. This unacceptability goes too far in nullifying the ideals of Kant. The non-moral attitudes are different from human values of peace and love. For Kant, this unacceptability has a limit, which is the fluctuation in human decision abilities. If some immoral things come in between human values and tasks ahead, it demonstrates that human motivation has scrambled. This is the end of Kant’s moral philosophies since he believes human morals strengthen an individual.

Kant’s conception of Enlightenment

Kant’s enlightenment is human’s emergence from its self- imposed restrictions. The restriction in this case, is man’s ability to not recognize his strength and abilities. In one way, it diminishes human ability to take over challenge, on other hand it restricts its ability to recognize the challenges ahead. Immanuel Kant’s conception of enlightenment breaks all such taboos and calls for developing a pursuit to recognize inner individualities. These restrictions or nonage causes lies and results in taking over men’s ability to take decision. Gradually then a distance from enlightenment results in havoc which takes over all emotions and abilities. If anyone stands poles apart from changing his nature or recognizing his inner abilities, it reciprocates the absence of courage. The absence of courage, in this case, is denying each opportunity and self-realization. In ‘what is enlightenment’, Kant argues “One must have courage to use own understanding (Beiser)”. This is how courage is related to enlightenment.

This distance from enlightenment is the factor which kept humans away from ‘naturaliter maiorennes’, the alien guidance. Kant argues that since men have spent considerable time in defiance and have not accepted their ability to conquer fear and cowardice, therefore enlightenment has remained away from changing their fortunes. According to him, ignorance is bliss. It provides humans a comfort zone and all the abilities to spend a beautiful life. It is here when one destructs himself since he lacks the confidence to abolish his self-imposed restrictions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"KM1XwTfZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Beiser)","plainCitation":"(Beiser)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":110,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H7W6TXYQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/H7W6TXYQ"],"itemData":{"id":110,"type":"article-journal","title":"The Enlightenment and idealism","container-title":"The Cambridge companion to German idealism","page":"18–36","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Beiser","given":"Frederick"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Beiser). Maturity for such humans become something of least importance since they become inclined to their comfort zones. In describing the aspect of cowardice in humans, Kant has resorted to explaining this mode by illustrating how a coward person faces difficulty in each aspect of life. It is by this manner, enlightenment remains away from humanity and people become habitual of ignorance. Kant’s work was more relevant to his time, but the philosophers after him also never denied the importance of his ideas, which shows the relevance of his inputs to philosophy.

How they critique one’s society?

The present society or the social structure everywhere in the world lack a conceptual understanding of Immanuel Kant’s ideas. There are not many phenomena in the world of ours that hold any value to the ideas offered by him. Immorality and cowardice are the most common practices adopted by the individuals of this world. For many reasons, they are forced to live in, and no one, therefore, tries to break a so-called cover of negligence upon us. There is a lot of literature which defines in different manner, the ideas of Immanuel Kant, but none of it conforms to the manner, ‘We’ as human conduct our affairs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hh27Gsjw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Habermas)","plainCitation":"(Habermas)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":113,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/L9EBS5EW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/L9EBS5EW"],"itemData":{"id":113,"type":"article-journal","title":"Morality and ethical life: Does Hegel's critique of Kant apply to discourse ethics","container-title":"Nw. UL Rev.","page":"38","volume":"83","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Morality and ethical life","author":[{"family":"Habermas","given":"Jurgen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1988"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Habermas). The result is ignorance, lack of resources and lack of the ability to recognize ourselves. This is pushing ourselves back every day and we are not in the position to solve our very own issues. This is how the individuals of this day have deliberately denied themselves many opportunities to better themselves.

They resort to describing the flaws which exist among individuals, culture, and societies. It is in this way they have critiqued our society. Since the culture, values and our religious affiliations all stand hollow and we lack the commitment and courage to resolve our affairs, therefore Kant’s ideas stand against us. Although born at a very early time, he described the human values so explicitly that no one can deny the fact that he was right and his ideas still remain relevant today. From individual, collective and social level, the human values offered by Kant are relevant. Although critical, they hold considerable importance for humanity at large. Their critique on the society is not based on flawed conceptualization of society. Every aspect of their criticism speaks volume ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3xV4iDfC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Habermas)","plainCitation":"(Habermas)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":113,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/L9EBS5EW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/L9EBS5EW"],"itemData":{"id":113,"type":"article-journal","title":"Morality and ethical life: Does Hegel's critique of Kant apply to discourse ethics","container-title":"Nw. UL Rev.","page":"38","volume":"83","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Morality and ethical life","author":[{"family":"Habermas","given":"Jurgen"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1988"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Habermas). Their critique describes in the most authentic manner, what the human values of this society actually are. The critique offered by them remains useful unless individuals specifically and society at large don’t change their attitude towards life.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Beiser, Frederick. “The Enlightenment and Idealism.” The Cambridge Companion to German Idealism, 2000, pp. 18–36.

Habermas, Jurgen. “Morality and Ethical Life: Does Hegel’s Critique of Kant Apply to Discourse Ethics.” Nw. UL Rev., vol. 83, 1988, p. 38.

Kant, Immanuel, and Jerome B. Schneewind. The groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. Yale University Press, 2002.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

Kass And McMahan Essay

Kass and McMahan Essay

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Kass and McMahan Essay

Introduction

A human being is the most perfect creations created by God till now. It is also the most complex creations of God with every system perfectly placed and working in coordination. The artistry should be appreciated that how it starts from a single cell and then a combination of many individual cells of the same type makes a tissue; many similar tissues combine to form an organ, different organs working similarly make an organ system, and ultimately multiple systems combine to form a human body. Most of the people are born complete in every aspect, they have all the organs which are working properly and everything in a body that is required to live and lead a happy life, but some people are not that much lucky.

Many people fail to realize how much blessed they are to have a complete body and a sound mind. Many people just overlook the fact that they are able to open their eyes every day in full healthy state and perform their tasks without any physical or mental barrier. Such people fail to realize that it is very tough, even impossible, for some people even to pass a single day. These people happen to be suffering from certain disabilities. Disability refers to any physical or mental condition that limits a person’s movements, senses or activities. Disabled people can also be known to be handicapped and remain restricted due to their physical or mental hindrances.

It has been a topic of debate since a long time that whether disables people should be allowed to live or not. To be more precise, scientists and researchers have long argued on the topic that whether the birth of individuals with disabilities be allowed or not; Whether the handicapped people should be allowed to live with their disabilities and all their problems or should these people be finished in the early stages of their lives. Another dimension of debate arises here in the form of abortion.

Many scientists argue that disabled people should be aborted as a fetus in the very begging of their life stages in the form of abortion. Abortion refers to the deliberate termination of human fetus ring the early stages of pregnancy. It is mostly performed during the first 28 weeks of pregnancy. It is a hot topic of debate that whether disabled people should be aborted during the pregnancy or not. Two of the notable contributions in this respect have been presented by Leon Richard Kass in the book “Bioethics: Principles, Issues and Cases” and another by Jeff McMahan which carries the title of "The Morality of Screening for Disability." Both the researchers have presented their views in the light of their observations and studies and keeping in mind the current practices going in in the recent times.

Discussion

Leon Kass, in his essay argues that it is totally irrational to abort he fetus whether it has been diagnosed with a disability or not. He takes the help of morality to elaborate his arguments. Kass presents his views that every human being has the right to life no matter how small they are or at what stage of their life they are. In his opinion, aborting a fetus is like killing an entire human being and it is completely immoral; it is like you are choosing a particular race not to come in this world and eradicating it completely CITATION Kas16 \l 1033 (Kass, July, 2016).

Jeff McMahan, on the other hand, presents another view of the story. He explains that if a baby or fetus is diagnosed with some sort of disability and the medical practitioner knows that the medical science would not be able to cure it, it should be aborted. McMahan is of the view that it does not create any moral obligations or it is not a matter of such a big issue that an individual with a disability is stopped from coming into this world. In his opinion, if a person with a disability is born, it would be tough for him or her to carry on even their daily activities which would make their life a living hell; therefore there should be no ethical, legal or moral obligations to abort a fetus with certain physical or mental disabilities. (McMahan, July, 2016)

There is a lot of difference in the pieces of writings provided by both the writers. Although both are on the same topic "Abortion and Disability," both provide a different point of view. One author considers the act of abortion as an immoral activity, even a sin, whereas the other author tries to prove that it is not a big deal to abort a child, especially if its parents do not want to keep it.

I have gone through both these essays; both have been written excellently clarifying each author’s arguments with unambiguous examples and explanation. Both these articles have broadened my view and helped me out in shaping my opinion regarding the topic. In my view, no person has the right to kill a fetus while it’s still in the womb or even after that; it is completely immoral and unethical. If nature wants to bring a soul into this world, we, humans should not intervene in it and let nature do its job.

Conclusion

Shortly, I agree with the opinion presented by Leon Kass, that every individual has complete right to live, whether disabled or not, and it is completely immoral to decide the future of a person when is still in his mother’s womb.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 Kass, L. R. (July, 2016). In L. Vaughn, Bioethics; Principals, Issues and Cases (pp. 560- 564). Oxford University Press.

BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 McMahan, J.. (July, 2016). The Morality of Screening for Disability,. In L. Vaughn, Bioethics; Principals, Issues and Cases (pp. 571-574). Oxford University Press.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Letter To Menoeceus

Student

Course

Instructor

Date

Letter to Monoeceous

Eudemonia is an ideology mentioned by Aristotle where he describes it as a condition of humans flourishing well. He considered it different from the state of being in happiness, as he believed that eudemonia as it does not include that state of mind or satisfaction as ‘happiness’ should. He called it the best of human life that is desired by one’s self, rather than for something else. Aristotle believed that living thing or any man made thing possess some unique feature that differentiates it from rest of the things. The highest good for anything is determined on the basis of its good performance or good characteristics, virtues and qualities that assist in performing good. Thus, eudemonia comprises of two basic concepts in its definition of ‘good’, performance of distinctive function of human beings and the virtue that is combination of so many good traits. Aristotle argued that the capability to ‘reason’ is the unique function of humans that distinguish them from all other things.

According to his book ‘Nicomachean ethics’, Aristotle stated that eudemonia comprises of a philosophical and scientific mediation as per the intellectual virtues of wisdom and thoughtfulness. He also included the functionality of characteristics and virtues in the political sphere where it can be used in applications of terms such as justice, morality and happiness. Thus, according to his eudemian ethics theory, eudemonia consists of all the functions of a soul that comply with the perfection and completion of virtue, be it intellectual or moral. Subsequently, it can be referred to as an activity rather than a state and it primarily includes the practice of reasoning. He also established that these virtues are not based on innate or acquired skills, rather they are inculcated by social appropriation, reflection and habituation. Thus, eudemonia is the accomplishment of complete life or at least much of it ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gIIpgMcw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fowers)","plainCitation":"(Fowers)"},"citationItems":[{"id":23,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/HkFX5Fcg/items/XRQXCVX9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/HkFX5Fcg/items/XRQXCVX9"],"itemData":{"id":23,"type":"chapter","title":"Aristotle on eudaimonia: On the virtue of returning to the source","container-title":"Handbook of eudaimonic well-being","publisher":"Springer","page":"67-83","author":[{"family":"Fowers","given":"Blaine J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Fowers). Such philosophical theories were considered as highly sophisticated and realistic substitutes of action based theories in the mid-20th century. Theories of utilitarianism, deontology and consequentialism were thought to be the counterintuitive of the theoretical theories.

Epicurus was a major figure in both science and philosophy. For him, happiness holds an intrinsic value in life, especially in the form of pleasure. A pleasant life, in his opinion, is the one where we refrain from unnecessary desires and work towards the attainment of inner tranquility, which asks that an individual be content with themselves in the effort and achievement of pleasure. The choice of pleasure, in his opinion, ranged between the pleasure of having philosophical conversations with friends or the choice of physical pleasures that includes, drinking, food, and sex.

He was a staunch believer of his opinion, which is why he chose to spend his final days of life delving in pleasure regardless of how much physical pain he was in at the time. He also states that future is not ours truly, thus, it is better that we neither expect much from it, nor do we abandon all hope. At the same time, we should also take control of our desires and ensure that we understand these facts. The right understanding of facts leads to the best of choices, which in turn improves our understanding of the matter. It helps us remove disturbances from the sole and enable us to live a blessed life ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eyFgHdVp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bergsma et al.)","plainCitation":"(Bergsma et al.)"},"citationItems":[{"id":22,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/HkFX5Fcg/items/7ZFQBWGB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/HkFX5Fcg/items/7ZFQBWGB"],"itemData":{"id":22,"type":"article-journal","title":"Happiness in the garden of Epicurus","container-title":"Journal of Happiness Studies","page":"397-423","volume":"9","issue":"3","author":[{"family":"Bergsma","given":"Ad"},{"family":"Poot","given":"Germaine"},{"family":"Liefbroer","given":"Aart C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bergsma et al.). Thus, we should avoid both pain and fear as it is only then can be feel pleasure. He calls pleasure as the very first thing that is both good and natural to us. However, being human, we do not always gravitate towards the various pleasures that life has to offer, pleasures always follow us once we have endured the greatest amounts of pain known to man.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bergsma, Ad, et al. “Happiness in the Garden of Epicurus.” Journal of Happiness Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2008, pp. 397–423.

Fowers, Blaine J. “Aristotle on Eudaimonia: On the Virtue of Returning to the Source.” Handbook of Eudaimonic Well-Being, Springer, 2016, pp. 67–83.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Living Virtuously In The Philosophy Of Confucius

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Living virtuously in the philosophy of Confucius

Introduction

Confucianism is one of the oldest philosophies that teach people how to live life . It mainly centers its focus on the idea on social as well as ethical teachings rather than religious. Veritably, this philosophy could be witnessed as one teaching people how to live a virtuous life. It won’t be wrong to say that philosophy of Confucius is more linked with living a life that would be accepted and appreciated by the Creator (Chuang,et,al,2018). According to the philosophy of Confucius, when one would be following all the set social norms and rituals of society in which he/she living, undoubtedly he would be living a virtuous life.

Discussion

Confucianism is primarily concerned with character building, teaching of acceptable human behaviors and ways of life that would be in accordance with the ritual of a society. This philosophy stresses upon that the idea that rather than thinking ways of life are spiritually correct, one should pay attention to the area the life one is living, if it is welcoming by the society or not (Luo,et,al,2019). Taking a look at the present circumstance, I could say that in the present world in most of the societies virtuous living is now being associated with social teachings. I have witnessed that people who spend their lives as per the rituals and the ethical teachings are appreciated more. There is great number of people who are following philosophy of Confucian for having a virtuous life.

Conclusion

Behavior, supported by any society that is in accordance with the rituals rarely clashes with any religious teaching, so I have witnessed that society where people follow the rituals and set patterns. So as a whole, it could be promulgated according to Confucianism, only those people could live virtuous lives who spend their lives as the traditions and rituals of a community. According to me, one playing his/her traditional role could be looked upon as the example for living a virtuous life.

Work Cited:

Chuang, Szufang, and Greg G. Wang. "Confucian philosophy and influence on perceived values and behavioural orientations by Taiwan’s millennials." Human Resource Development International 21.4 (2018): 362-381.

Luo, Shirong. "Happiness and the Good Life: A Classical Confucian Perspective." Dao 18.1 (2019): 41-58.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Logic Exam

Few questions are not graded yet

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 10 Words: 3000

Love And Philosophy

Name of Student

Name of Professor

Name of Class

Day Month Year

Love and Philosophy

Summary of Speech 1

Vlastos defines love not in terms of a sufficient condition; rather love is defined as a necessary condition. This definition refers to the cases where a person is seeking something for others or who is doing good to others. It is asserted that the Vlastos’s definition of love is much defective, where it is found that the essence of love is to possess virtue for oneself, wishing good things for others for their sake only. It is termed as an approach to find virtue for oneself and seek good for others.

Summary of Speech 2

Diotima proposes a ladder of love that maps certain stages highlighting particular traits of the one who is loved at each stage. Diotima’s ladder of love is also called Plato's ladder of love or Plato's ladder of Eros. It refers to the philosophy where there are six types of love and each kind makes up the rungs of the ladder. This ladder is the representative of understanding to love. She has associated some religious explanations with her ladder of love as well, taking into account a reference to Plato’s message of love. However, she has summarized the ladder of love, ranging from the love of a particular body; love of all bodies, then to love for souls, proceeding to love for laws and institutions and love for knowledge. It ends at love for love itself. Diotima is of the view that love is a definition of properties of the one who is loved, taking into account that only that individual is loved who has the objectification of excellence. An analysis of this excellence deprives us of the analysis of disinterested affection for the person who is loved by us. Diotima gives examples of fireman, teachers, and nurses who take care of others and seek to do something that is actually good, even if the love for others may be absent. It would not be wrong to say this definition of love is more of an expression of wellbeing rather than compassion or some sentiments that are felt for a single individual only.

Comparison of two speeches

In the two speeches, there is a comparison of understanding of love proposed by Diotima and Vlastos, taking into account that both the ideologies of love meet and then fall apart. Diotima categorized love in the form of hierarchies where there are some positions assigned to love. Here, one stage proceeds to the other. On the other hand, is the expression of love by Vlastos who is of the view that love is something universal, it is the cause of motivation that keeps this world and its happenings going, the major difference between the two understandings lies in the underlying approach where at one side love is universal and it has nothing to do with personal desires and intentions. Love is a hierarchy of leading to eternity. Diotima also believes that love is the cause of motivation that guides us to achieve anything.

It is found that the description of love proposed by Diotima refers to an uncertain approach of love. Her description is similar to that of Plato's way of determining a shift in the definition of love that ranges from a simple attempt to indefinite love and leading to a platform of identifying the commonalities in all types of love. Here, it is different from the ideology of love that was proposed by Vlastos because Diotima categorized love in a hierarchy that is an ordered sequence, where one step is positioned as superior to another. The hierarchy of love involves some non-Socratic ideas where love is one ultimate objects of life. Here, love is defined as in terms of physical beauty, taking into account the idea that physical love leads to spiritual love, which leads to the awareness of the beauty of sciences.

The major difference lies in the classification where Diotima presented stage of life referring to the ascent of love from some pure physical attraction to a more psychological approach whereas Vlastos highlighted love as an analysis that helps an individual to seek what is significant and virtual for oneself.

Analysis

As asserted by Diotima and Vlastos, love is purely natural, it is a bond and attraction that connects. Love is more like an approach that makes a human fall for someone who is appealing, depicts personal measures of excellence and has a strong bond of connectivity. Love is a set of feelings, behaviors, emotions, and beliefs that are assimilated and connected with some strong feeling of protectiveness, respect, affection, and warmth for another person.

In accordance with the speech of Diotima, it is asserted that love is a ladder of affection where romantic love is an impression that signifies human attitude when connected with another being who is a partner and a mate. Romantic Love is natural adhering to the fact that every human being has its own ideology towards love. A literal connotation of both, love and romance are defined in terms of natural phenomena. Moreover, culture may impact the beliefs associated with romantic love but the overall understanding and analysis of love is purely natural because romantic level is one of the spiritual settings that connects the soul.

If the idea and definition proposed by Vlastos is asserted, it can be said that love supported by technological world is a motivation that is retrieved from others using social media platform.

Love is an always spontaneous phenomenon. It does not require any kind of planning. There is no love with planning because if it is planned it is a strategy, not love. The natural phenomena of love satisfy the condition of chance rather than choice. Although the element of choice is found in the description quoted by Diotima who asserts that an individual fall in love with the one who has subject excellence. Despite Diotima’s notion, the ideology of love is still natural because one never knows the individual who is judged from the perspective of excellence inferring from a personal point of view. Moreover, if one is seeking personal excellence in some other being or human, then the connection that supports the seeking of those attributes is also a natural phenomenon.

Modern technologies such as Facebook and online dating has brought a two-dimensional impact, at one side, it has facilitated access to love by bringing people close to each other in the digital world and on the other hand it has ruined the underlying essence of love, people are more inclined towards materialism and exploitation of love.

Conclusion

Love is an abstraction based on underlying realities that are discussed by different authors and philosophers. Today, love is also assessed under sociological terms such as culture and technical advancement paving the way for different perspectives in terms of understanding love. It is asserted that love is modified under the impact of technology as well because exploitation is always there. Moreover, the underlying essence of love is natural that cannot be challenged because it is a bonding that not only connects bodies but also the souls of two different people.

Love is natural, it has nothing to do with culture and norms

Technological advancements have both facilitated and deprived love of its natural essence that can keep people and souls united

Love has nothing to do with planning. If love is planned then it cannot be pure. Even some planned actions turn out to be love in the end that infers that love is purely natural with no room to choose.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

Machiavelli And His Morality

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Machiavelli and his Morality

Summary

This assignment is concerned with the exploration of Machiavelli’s ground breaking philosophy about politics particularly the fine distinction between morality of rulers and common people. A brief biography of Niccolò Machiavelli will be presented first. After that his beliefs, influences on the society and significant writings will be embraced brief depiction.

Main body

Machiavelli (1496-1527) was born in Florence, Italy. His father was a lawyer descendent from a fiscally well-heeled and noble family. He was fond of reading literature and history of classical Rome (Giovanni, 2013). He was born in tumultuous time in which acquisitive wars were waged by popes against Italian States. In order to attain regional influence, Holy Roman Empire, Spain and France fought battles against each other, as a result cities and people often fell from political power (Lahtinen, 2009). The continuous and unpredictable fluctuation of military-politics alliances featured mercenary leaders who attempted to alter their sides without communicating any warning due to which number of short-lived governments rose and fell (Agnes, 2015).

It was an unfortunate day of 1494 when a ruling Medici family was overthrown and replaced by republican regime which was initially ruled by the Savonarola—a fanatical monk. After three year, in 1498, Machiavelli joined Public Service when Savonarola was overthrown by radical rulers (Agnes, 2015). He was given the responsibility in both diplomatic and domestic affairs after being appointed at two core governmental institutions (Lahtinen, 2009). He performed his duty in Florentine Republic for approximately 14 years and closely observed adventurer Cesare Borgia at close quarters. In 1509, the Florentine forces executed triumphant recapture of the Pisa that was masterminded by Machiavelli (Giovanni, 2013).

Despite his efforts, Italian states were still vulnerable to ebbs and flows brought by great-power politics—their future seemed unstable with the lingering sense of uncertainty—specifically due to the papacy and ambitions of France. However, Medici family was again brought to power and republic was overthrown in 1512 (Agnes, 2015). He was died in 1526 when imprisoned and tortured brutally after getting accused of indulgence in a political plot.

He is best known for his excellent and influential writings The Prince that was ironically published after his death. He originally wrote this piece to publish his claims for Medici administration however these documented advices were immensely applicable for other aspiring rulers as well (Lahtinen, 2009). This publication attempted to subvert the moral teachings of Catholic Church, due to which it became notorious among the administrators and politicians quickly. He documented numerous examples about notable historical figures and the man he observed—Cesare Borgia (Agnes, 2015).

He argued that context-specific ruthlessness is the prominent hallmark of successful ruler because being feared is better than being loved. He propounded the intriguing notion that “the end justifies the mean” e.g., the goodness and badness of some act is largely dependent on the outcomes. If outcome is positive; it does not matter by which means it was achieved (Lahtinen, 2009). He further suggested that rulers must keep only that promise which is expected to give favorable results. For the quality of Machiavelli's work The Price, the backhanded tribune can be referred to its ground-breaking popularity. A successful comedy drama— Mandragola—was also composed of his writings (Agnes, 2015).

In The Prince, the concept of political expediency was put by Machiavelli in the most electrifying version. He presented two different definitions of morality for common people and rulers for which he is somewhat associated with the disengagement of conventional morality and politics; the justification of all ways and means even if it revolves around committing most unscrupulous to attain political power (Daniel, 1966). As a result, he is often termed as an individual stimulated by the devil, an anti-Christian, immoral manipulator of words, deliberate tutor of evil and advocate of tyranny and cruelty (Giovanni, 2013).

However, he was not the recommender of immoral behavior rather he was in view that in this world of diversity and instability, for rulers to stay in power, it is mandatory to consider other available options as well. He suggested that it is important for rulers to get prepared for dispensing the conventional rules of morality based on the inevitableness of situations (Lahtinen, 2009).

He was personally in favor of such leaders who are clever and plain speaking—prioritizing and respecting the rights and interests of general public. He strongly disliked corruptible monarchies that do everything for their own interests. Based on the deviated concept of morality, he presented the Model of Good Governess and started writing another book (Giovanni, 2013). He named this book the Discourses which contained compelling lessons from the political history of Romans. He further suggested that Armies can only be effective when they are chosen from the prospective nations—with the national zeal and motivation—rather than paid mercenaries, which was a hot topic of that time (Daniel, 1966).

His thoughts contained realism due to which he was set apart from the liberalism and neo-conservative ideas i.e., armed forces must back the moral beliefs (Daniel, 1966). A well known neo-conservative academic—Leo Strauss—agreed most of his ideas and renounced him as the first, uniquely, modern political philosopher exclusively because his work was detached from the concept of religion—it had no place for religion and associated concepts of mortality. He, in a true sense, propounded the notion that religion and politics are two different things which should never be synchronized (Lahtinen, 2009).

In my view, he presented somewhat contradictory but revolutionary ideas about how rulers are overthrown under the influence of religious morality and then common people suffer. He argued that mortality is not about the right path but the right outcome—in case of rulers—because whole nation is under their influence and their instability and uncertainty affects them gravely.

Works cited

Mikko Lahtinen. “Montesquieu (1689–1755) is a rival for this role. Politics and Philosophy: Niccolò Machiavelli and Louis Althusser's Aleatory Materialism.” BRILL, 2009, pp.115–16.

Giorgini Giovanni. "Five Hundred Years of Italian Scholarship on Machiavelli's Prince," Review of Politics, 75(4), 2013, pp. 625–40.

Heller, Agnes. “Renaissance Man.” Abingdon: Routledge, 2015, pp.415, ISBN 9781317403302.

Donno, Daniel. The introduction to the Bantam Classic edition of The Prince.1966.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Marx Final Draft

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Marx Final Draft

When Karl Marx wrote about the evils of capitalism in his economics and philosophical manuscripts, he was surely describing capitalism as he knew it – capitalism during the 19th century, along with the economic and social realities of Northwestern Europe during that time. Without doubt, there are similarities between the capitalism that Marx knew and loathed throughout his life and the capitalism that exists throughout the free world today. And with so many people still reading Karl Marx’s economic and philosophical manuscripts today, it must have some relevance.

In economic and philosophical manuscripts, Marx describes capitalism as an exploitation of labor - a system in which the owner of the means of production unfairly owns and collects the value workers produce. Further, Marx described the victimized workers as depressed, and the capitalist as greedy CITATION Mar44 \l 1033 (Marx). While this doesn’t seem to be the current majority opinion of capitalism, many of the ideas in Economic and philosophical manuscripts continue to hold true of the capitalism that exists in the United States today.

Ownership of the means of production concentrated to a few, or one, individuals played a large role in the evil that Marx saw capitalism as. Marx argued that for this distribution of ownership to exist, expropriation must have happened. That is, the owner of the means of production must have stolen the rights from the laborers - presumably in a violent manner but could have also occurred in more complex ways. Marx further argued that these laborers, likely small craftsman, could have done their work just as well had they organized it themselves CITATION Mar44 \l 1033 (Marx). It is hard to imagine one worker, or even a group of workers, organizing their work and competing efficiently with a corporation today. Marx’s argument may have held more weight in 1867 when businesses were much smaller and less complex, but the technology and innovation of today’s corporations render this argument irrelevant. Further, if a person is a plumber by trade and they decide to work for a small plumbing company, it is hard to argue their boss somehow forced them to work there instead of operating independently. The plumber likely weighed their options and found employment at the plumbing shop to be their best option.

Today, if someone works for a corporation, he, indeed, does not have full ownership of the value he creates each day. However, he has ownership of his check, compensation for his work. Perhaps employees’ expectations have changed since Marx’s time. Today, it is not common for an employee to demand ownership over the entire value he or she creates. For example, a roofer would not expect to receive the full value of what he creates because there are often many levels of upper management that also create value and must be paid a share of the profit as well.

It is also likely that employees today better understand the way a company operates and the role of profits. If a company paid its employees so much that they broke even every year, they would not operate well or for very long. In the long run, it is in the employees’ best interest and for their company to make a profit, so their wages can be secured and grow over time. Thus, most of the scholars would argue that Marx’s central argument that the owners of production are unfairly stealing the profits resulting from the value created by their employees has become irrelevant.

The important thing to learn from Karl Marx is how someone can be completely wrong about everything, be shown to be wrong in the years after his death, for his ideas to be responsible for deaths of 10s of millions and still be revered. It is a good object lesson on how foolish outwardly intelligent human beings can be. As for the contents of his works, they are a waste of time. The Labor Theory of Value was discounted in his lifetime, his highly artificial, Legalistic ideas about the contradictions of capitalism has been disproved by events. His ideas of how to achieve a society without government have always been seen as ridiculous. In the U.S., the basic idea behind Capitalism is what Marxism warned about.  But the tension between classes has always been mediated here by the idea of political equality.  One vote for one person, and that every citizen, regardless of social standing, wealth or education, can participate in and possibly affect the political process. However, this factor is quickly eroding, with attempts at voter suppression, corporate lobbying, corporations as political entities and big money PAC's crowding out the common citizen and creating multiple vast divisions between various interests and ideologies.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Marx, Karl. "Economic & Philosophic manuscripts of 1844." Marx. Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 (1844): 3-20. <https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/download/pdf/Economic-Philosophic-Manuscripts-1844.pdf>.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Marxism

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Marxism

Introduction:

Marxism is a social and economic system based on the economic theories of Friedrich Engels. It is summed up by as a theory which focuses on the class system in order to analyze the social system of a society. The theory mainly focuses on Western theory. It is the opposite of Capitalism which supports class system. In Marxism, the mean of production is dominated by public ownership. The distribution and exchange in a marker are all controlled by the public not by a private individual. Marxism is more influenced by the scientific theories of socialism ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qBGDcIso","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Storey)","plainCitation":"(Storey)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":358,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LY9XXHSK/items/C6PVMPJZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LY9XXHSK/items/C6PVMPJZ"],"itemData":{"id":358,"type":"book","title":"Cultural theory and popular culture: An introduction","publisher":"Routledge","ISBN":"1-351-85141-1","author":[{"family":"Storey","given":"John"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Storey). Socialist says the unjust social distribution of private property starts before the French revolution. The revolutionary leaders like Francois Noel Babeuf (1764-1797) started writing about the equal distribution of wealth by the stats. He said that happiness in a society depends on equality and the aim of a society to make everyone happy (Social and Political Philosophy).

Marxism explains the fact that whey the principles of Socialism need to be applied for the economic and social upbringing of society. As Socialism opposed the idea that people could be free to accumulate property for themselves. Marxism is more oriented towards the ideology of Socialism and Marx argue that human is not only socially groomed by are economically shaped as well. Both Marxism and socialism focused on the main issue that resources should be distributed based on needs so that society could not have a class system.

The Social and Political thoughts of Marx:

Marx focused on the form of product in society. There are two basic types of productions. Type one is the productive forces that are the tools used in the production process, as human labor, buildings and infrastructure. The second type is the social and technical relation to productions. Marx argues that social and political theories should be made by keeping those types in mind. He means that the power of controlling the production could affect the productive forces ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"RSn2p0W5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Garcia)","plainCitation":"(Garcia)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":360,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LY9XXHSK/items/4K7DJNKZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LY9XXHSK/items/4K7DJNKZ"],"itemData":{"id":360,"type":"article","title":"Marxism","author":[{"family":"Garcia","given":"Francelina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,29]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Garcia). Many political philosophers say that Marx has no political thoughts. Like Alvin Gouldner said, “the absence of a fully explicit political theory should be treated a “lapse” in

Marx’s own thinking and a “trouble difficulty” for later Marxist ( ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"U8OCUTum","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ashcraft)","plainCitation":"(Ashcraft)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":361,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LY9XXHSK/items/7AAA5XLB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/LY9XXHSK/items/7AAA5XLB"],"itemData":{"id":361,"type":"article-journal","title":"Marx and Political Theory","container-title":"Comparative Studies in Society and History","page":"637-671","volume":"26","issue":"4","source":"JSTOR","archive":"JSTOR","ISSN":"0010-4175","author":[{"family":"Ashcraft","given":"Richard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1984"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} Ashcraft,p.637). The critiques say that he had no political thought because according to Marx political theorizing is a social activity that could be designed based on the social conditions. For that, he brought together the element of popular socialists. Hethen introduced Communism which says that the only practical thing was to obtain a good grip over the governing laws of the society. He also worked on a scientific theory for a society that was based on the experience of men. He believed in the essential goodness of the society and his social thought was discouraging social class. He wants to achieve a classless society through his economic theories (Storey).

Marx social, political and economic principles were the modified version of old principles of German, English and French philosophers. He brought greater changes in the class-based society of England in its nineties. He used classical English models to fight against the industrialized society of England. He wrote various books, magazine related to Philosophy, Economy and society. He took the dialectical methods of Hegel and included materialist thoughts into it. He viewed capitalism as the producers of a germ and he explained it in his theories of surplus value. Apart from the social, economic and political theories, Marx had structured a whole community of communist and that is his great achievement (Storey).

Conclusion:

Karl Marx is no doubt a great philosopher of modern time. His ideas have built up the status of a powerful and influential philosophy. His idea regarding the Dialectical Materialism, class struggle and surplus values altered the domain economic and political philosophies of Capitalism. But philosopher opposed Marxism on the basis of it being very radical. Marx tried his best to have a classless society and it is still the dream of the majority of people around the globe.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Ashcraft, Richard. “Marx and Political Theory.” Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 26, no. 4, 1984, pp. 637–71. JSTOR.

Garcia, Francelina. Marxism. 29 Apr. 2019.

Storey, John. Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: An Introduction. Routledge, 2018.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Memory Errors In Real Life

Memory Errors in Real Life

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Memory Errors in Real Life

Introduction

Memory errors happen to be a commonplace part of everyday life, more so than most people even realize. It is not as if everything that we remember about our lives is filled with errors, but it can verily be said that our memory does fill in its gaps, if any, with incoherent and implausible facts ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tdpCn8XD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tourangeau, 1999)","plainCitation":"(Tourangeau, 1999)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":162,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/NHADYBCD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/NHADYBCD"],"itemData":{"id":162,"type":"chapter","title":"Remembering what happened: Memory errors and survey reports","container-title":"The science of self-report","publisher":"Psychology Press","page":"41-60","author":[{"family":"Tourangeau","given":"Roger"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1999"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tourangeau, 1999). According to Sir Bartlett, “remembering is an imaginative construction or reconstruction of facts” with an “active organization of past reactions, or of past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organic response” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"290TLV3w","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bartlett, Bartlett, & Kintsch, 1995)","plainCitation":"(Bartlett, Bartlett, & Kintsch, 1995)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":163,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/MCVQACXG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/MCVQACXG"],"itemData":{"id":163,"type":"book","title":"Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","volume":"14","ISBN":"0-521-48356-5","author":[{"family":"Bartlett","given":"Frederic Charles"},{"family":"Bartlett","given":"Frederic C."},{"family":"Kintsch","given":"Walter"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bartlett, Bartlett, & Kintsch, 1995). The human brain has unlimited storage capacity-, but, our attention to a subject is what makes a memory stronger and more lasting as compared to others. However, being at fault is something the human brain cannot comprehend. Thus, when push comes to shove, it would much rather give us an untrue answer than drawing a blank.

Discussion

A prime exam of memory distortion can be seen in the case of an NBC reporter and his Iraq war visit that landed him in hot waters/ In the March of 2003, a famous NBC reported Brian Williams reported that as an on-the-ground journalist during the Iraq war, when a Chinook ahead of the helicopter he was in was blown out of the sky by an RPG. His helicopter made an immediate safe landing. However, the story was run under the headline "Target Iraq: Helicopter NBC's Brian Williams Was Riding in Comes Under Fire", with another anchor reporting that it was a close call for Brian Williams CITATION Ale15 \l 1033 (Stanley, 2015).

However, over the next 12 years, Williams’ account of the story would dramatically change. Initial, he stated that he was in a helicopter that was half an hour behind the one that was attacked and blown out of the sky by the RPG. Later, however, the story changed, with him stating that he himself was in the craft that was attacked. In 2007, he stated that he looked down upon the RPG that was fired at his craft and one had also blown the craft ahead of him out of the sky CITATION Pau15 \l 1033 (Farhi, 2015). This claim was refuted by the soldier piloting the craft, stating that all they sustained were small-arms fire and the door gunners in the craft responded to them. This time and many times in the future, Williams apologizes for his statements. By 2015, Brian Williams had embellished the helicopter story over 11 times, each instance becoming more bizarre and confusing than the one before CITATION Pau151 \t \l 1033 (Farhi, 2015). This, among other things, made NBC suspend Brian Williams for a period of six months, a decision that adversely impacted Williams’ decade long reputation as a reporter and public figure CITATION Emi15 \l 1033 (Steel & Somaiya, 2015).

Critical Analysis

The Brian Williams saga gartered a whole lot of interest, while it lasted. While to most it seemed like a case where Williams was trying too hard to mark himself a hero, to others it seems that Williams suffered from a case of “the fog of memory”. With people considering it a way to save face, Lawrence Patihis, a psychologist studying memory had a different take on things. In his opinion, no person can be considered immune to memory distortion. He proved this by stating that 20 percent of people participating in a study generated false memories when suggested something untrue. For instance, if he mentioned the footage of Flight 93 crashing in Pennsylvania on September 11th existed, one in every five people would confess to seeing it, while an event like this never even occurred in the first. In case of Brian Williams, Lawrence is of the opinion that false information may have stemmed from him watching the footage of the damaged helicopter over and over again, parts of it mixing in with his own memories CITATION Ali15 \l 1033 (Robb, 2015). Additionally, if a number of years have passed since the memory has occurred, the integration of false memories during its reconstruction is far more likely. Add in the traumatic effects of the event, whether Brian’s helicopter was blown with the grenade or not, it is highly possible that he could have had no recollection of the incident, with the brain’s tendency to block out traumatic experiences ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7oF8iXqi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hayes et al., 2011)","plainCitation":"(Hayes et al., 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":169,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/PEEPCVYU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/PEEPCVYU"],"itemData":{"id":169,"type":"article-journal","title":"Reduced hippocampal and amygdala activity predicts memory distortions for trauma reminders in combat-related PTSD","container-title":"Journal of psychiatric research","page":"660-669","volume":"45","issue":"5","author":[{"family":"Hayes","given":"Jasmeet Pannu"},{"family":"LaBar","given":"Kevin S."},{"family":"McCarthy","given":"Gregory"},{"family":"Selgrade","given":"Elizabeth"},{"family":"Nasser","given":"Jessica"},{"family":"Dolcos","given":"Florin"},{"family":"Morey","given":"Rajendra A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hayes et al., 2011). Thus, a narrative change over a period of 12 years is highly possible.

Conclusion

Our memory isn’t as reliable as we would like to believe. It is prone to errors and the evidence to prove it is irrefutable. However, there are means to overcome every sort of error. Thus, there may be a few that can possibly help with memory errors. As mentioned early, past experiences are more prone to distortion. However, by using memory retrieval processes, it is possible to improve the accuracy of one’s memory and keep distortion at bay. The memory retrieval process requires you to actively search for evidence that corroborates your memory and then talk to an individual that may have shared the experience with you to find out memory facts that are common among the two of you. Finally, looking through collateral information can help you build an accurate and more reliable recollection of your memory ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2h1N0gDi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gallo & Lampinen, 2015)","plainCitation":"(Gallo & Lampinen, 2015)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":170,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/DAQZZSQ2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/5VyEEXyp/items/DAQZZSQ2"],"itemData":{"id":170,"type":"article-journal","title":"Three pillars of false memory prevention: Orientation, evaluation, and corroboration","container-title":"The Oxford handbook of metamemory","page":"387-404","author":[{"family":"Gallo","given":"David A."},{"family":"Lampinen","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Gallo & Lampinen, 2015). This can allow you to keep memory errors at bay while keeping your integrity intact.

References

Bartlett, F. C., Bartlett, F. C., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology (Vol. 14). Cambridge University Press.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Farhi, P. (2015, April 25). NBC News finds Brian Williams embellished at least 11 times. Retrieved from The Washington Times: https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/nbc-news-finds-brian-williams-embellished-at-least-11-times/2015/04/25/467e7c74-eafb-11e4-9767-6276fc9b0ada_story.html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.5261dd475a46

Farhi, P. (2015, February 7). NBC’s Brian Williams steps away from anchor chair amid probe. Retrieved from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/2015/02/07/5e1393a6-af0f-11e4-ad71-7b9eba0f87d6_story.html?utm_term=.7d9a4c673d51

Gallo, D. A., & Lampinen, J. M. (2015). Three pillars of false memory prevention: Orientation, evaluation, and corroboration. The Oxford Handbook of Metamemory, 387–404.

Hayes, J. P., LaBar, K. S., McCarthy, G., Selgrade, E., Nasser, J., Dolcos, F., & Morey, R. A. (2011). Reduced hippocampal and amygdala activity predicts memory distortions for trauma reminders in combat-related PTSD. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(5), 660–669.

Robb, A. (2015, February 6). A Memory Expert Explains Brian Williams's 'False' Memory. Retrieved from The New Republic: https://newrepublic.com/article/120990/memory-expert-explains-brian-williamss-false-memory-helicopter

Stanley, A. (2015, February 5). After a Decade Building Trust, an Anchor Starts a Firestorm With One Wrong Move. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/06/arts/television/brian-williamss-war-story.html

Steel, E., & Somaiya, R. (2015, February 10). Brian Williams Suspended From NBC for 6 Months Without Pay. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/11/business/media/brian-williams-suspended-by-nbc-news-for-six-months.html ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tourangeau, R. (1999). Remembering what happened: Memory errors and survey reports. In The science of self-report (pp. 41–60). Psychology Press.

Subject: Philosophy

Pages: 2 Words: 600

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