Why Is Not Chosing Any Options Wiser?

Why is not choosing any options wiser?

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Why is not choosing any options wiser?

For me not choosing any options is a wise decision. Every individual has own point of view and self-interest. Priority for anything helps to make the decision. For the game, three option can be choosen A, a, or nothing. All have their own outcome but it is not necessarily what is beneficial for one will bring the same outcome for the other. For me not choosing any options will be best than the other two options and it has various reasons.

Not choosing A:

By choosing A, one can get grade A while the rest of the class will get F grade. Here risk comes that if the second partner selects the same option first then it will give A grade to him and remaining all will get F. By thinking about self-interest rather than mutual interest this option would be best as it will help to get the higher grade. However, after thinking about the mutual interest this decision will be based on selfishness. For instance, many other students who work hard and deserve good grade and academic excellence will fail when only one will be able to get A. According to the Hobbes theory, it is the society, government, law and regulation that bring all the people united. Not all the people acquire the same kind of interest and everyone prefers their own level of satisfaction ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kMPyutfM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Smither, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Smither, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":514,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/WZUJKFGZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/WZUJKFGZ"],"itemData":{"id":514,"type":"webpage","title":"International Trade Refutes Hobbes's Theory about the State of Nature | David A. Smither","abstract":"Hobbes claimed that the state will always be there as the champion and defender of human rights and the common good. Real-world international trade should compel us to abandon the Hobbesian fallacy that we need a state to guarantee peace in our commercial lives.","URL":"https://fee.org/articles/international-trade-refutes-hobbess-theory-about-the-state-of-nature/","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Smither","given":"David A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,14]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Smither, 2019). With the existence of diverse point of views, the world can become a place of conflict, however, society and government set some ethics, laws and regulation which give individuals a way of life and solve the conflict. Same in the game, if everyone thinks about the self-interest rather than mutual interest, conflicts will arise. It will be unfair for lots of students who will be unable to get A grade even when they truly deserve it. If I ignore others interest and benefit, this option is also risky for me as well. There is a high proportion of risk that even I select A option, other students win the game and I have to lose the grades, therefore, it is better to think about the mutual interest rather than self-interest. It is true resources are scarce and human needs are unlimited and there is the war of all against all. However, it will be better to fight for the grades by working hard or by passing the paper through a systematic manner rather than winning an option and snatching other grades.

Not choosing option a:

Not choosing option A will help to increase mutual interest and minimizing self-risk for the grade. In addition, not choosing a or choosing it directly is linked to the self-risk. For instance, by selecting the option "a", I will be graded on the basis of one paper's grade. However, there is no choice of choosing which paper I want to show for grading. It means a random paper will be checked by the teacher and it will decide my whole grading. If by chance teacher selects a paper in which my performance was poor or average rather than the paper in which I had performed really well then the option will not be beneficial for me rather it will lower my grades. As John Locke defined the state of nature by using the term of equality and freedom, same should be applied for the game. For instance, there can be equality if the same subject will be selected for the evaluation for the students who have chosen the option "a". In this way, all students will be evaluated on the basis of the same paper and question and their understanding of the subject will help to identify who is better. The concept of freedom can also be used in the game. For instance, after selecting the option "a", the teacher should give a choice about the paper that the student wants to give for evaluation. In this way, the student can choose a subject in which he had performed well and it will lead to the higher grade. Locke said this concept as the law of nature where no one has the right to give harm to others. By giving equality and freedom there will be no harm for the other student. However, there is no such choice and student only can choose an option and the teacher will choose any paper to evaluate the marks ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vM8XkWEA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Simmons, 1989)","plainCitation":"(Simmons, 1989)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":518,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/EE2ID4L7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/EE2ID4L7"],"itemData":{"id":518,"type":"article-journal","title":"Locke's State of Nature","container-title":"Political Theory","page":"449-470","volume":"17","issue":"3","source":"JSTOR","archive":"JSTOR","ISSN":"0090-5917","author":[{"family":"Simmons","given":"A. John"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1989"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Simmons, 1989). This will lead to inequality and no freedom to try for the better grade, therefore choosing is an option is not the wise option.

Wise Decision:

Not choosing any decision is the wiser decision. As Hobbes theory indicates that without any system people go for violence and fight for the resources the same can happen through this game. There is a proper system for grading that is student gives exams and according to the performance gets the grades. However, by choosing option A there will be no paper for the student and all remaining student will be failed without analyzing their knowledge and skills. Even after choosing the option "a", only one paper will consider the element for the grades. Both the options are against nature as it detracts the grading system and grade will not be given on the basis of knowledge and equality. Self-interest is beneficial if the student tries to get it through a proper system that is by working hard and performing well in the exams while through game, everything will depend on the selected option. The way Hobbes explains that everyone has own rights and are free and independent. However, option "A" interlinked all the students and gain of one student will lead to the loss of the remaining one. Therefore, it is better not to choose option A and go for the decision of not selecting any of the option ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"F5OIlo6S","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}An Introduction to the Thought of Thomas Hobbes,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“An Introduction to the Thought of Thomas Hobbes,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":513,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/RFBCHP7F"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/RFBCHP7F"],"itemData":{"id":513,"type":"webpage","title":"An Introduction to the Thought of Thomas Hobbes","container-title":"Thomas Hobbes","abstract":"An Introduction to the Thought of Thomas Hobbes. Includes discussions of the State of Nature, liberalism, and religion. Links to extensive bibliography.","URL":"https://thegreatthinkers.org/hobbes/introduction/","language":"en-US","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“An Introduction to the Thought of Thomas Hobbes,” n.d.).

According to the John Locke theory, no student has the right to affect other student's grade for own higher grades. This kind of decision can bring inequality and harm to the other students. The grades and future of the student will be in danger because of one student who selected self-interest rather than mutual interest. In case of option "a" as well, decision cannot be considered wise as making one particular subject the source for the grades. As John Locke theory explained his theory through the idea of private property. The theory claims that individuals should not obey the ruler if he is not protecting rights to private property. The same concept can be applied to the game where a grade of every student is not protected and some students are getting more benefits through the game while remaining are losing their marks. By selecting no option there is the chance to get a high grade with hard work, good performance, and by without giving harm to the others as John Locke theory explained ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pencDpiB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}JOHN LOCKE\\uc0\\u8217{}S LIMITED STATE,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“JOHN LOCKE’S LIMITED STATE,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":515,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/EG79ME4R"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/rVaVAHaF/items/EG79ME4R"],"itemData":{"id":515,"type":"webpage","title":"JOHN LOCKE'S LIMITED STATE","URL":"http://www.quebecoislibre.org/06/060219-4.htm","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,15]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“JOHN LOCKE’S LIMITED STATE,” n.d.). There will be no risk of losing all the grades in one go as well. All grades will be given by working hard and making study priority rather than focusing on self-interest by ignoring the mutual interest of the students.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY An Introduction to the Thought of Thomas Hobbes. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2019, from Thomas Hobbes website: https://thegreatthinkers.org/hobbes/introduction/

JOHN LOCKE’S LIMITED STATE. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2019, from http://www.quebecoislibre.org/06/060219-4.htm

Simmons, A. J. (1989). Locke’s State of Nature. Political Theory, 17(3), 449–470. Retrieved from JSTOR.

Smither, D. A. (2019, April 14). International Trade Refutes Hobbes’s Theory about the State of Nature | David A. Smither. Retrieved April 15, 2019, from https://fee.org/articles/international-trade-refutes-hobbess-theory-about-the-state-of-nature/

Writer Choose

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Codes of Conduct and Theories of Ethics

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

 Answer 1 In the future, I want to open a dress designing company of my own. My aim is to open an organization which follows codes and conducts of ethics and morality.

Answer 2

I will create the following code of conduct for the organization I aim to run in the future

1- Members of the company shall obey all existing codes, laws, and regulations governing practices of business recognized by the federal government, community state or any other body of government where business is conduct.

2- Members of the company shall consider safety, welfare, and health of the public all the times in their business conduct.

3- Members of the company shall not abet or assist any illegal or improper comportment of anyone linking with a project.

4- Members may propose professional services to the client in case of any legal compensation issue.

5- Members shall be truthful and candid while communicating professionally.

6- Members shall agree with the maintenance of principles of personal and professional conduct which will positively mirror the profession and the association.

7- Members shall pursue to constantly advance their competency and professional knowledge.

Answer 3

1st Ethical Theory Utilitarianism 2nd code of conduct is related to utilitarianism. Its aim is to make a member of the organization think beyond their or the organizations interests. It focuses on reducing the wrongdoings and increasing noble doings by thwarting organization and its members to provide harm to the public with their actions. Taking care of safety, health and welfare of the public are without a doubt moral. This particular code involves utilitarian forces which reject the personal immoral interests and think about others in taking any particular action. For instance, not disturbing public with garbage and noise of machines, etc. and taking proper measures to take care of such issues.

b. 2nd Ethical Theory Kantian Ethics

1st code is related to Kantian Ethics. This code bridges moral values with categorical imperatives of Kantian ethics. As, any member of the company may want to take steps against the law, codes or regulations but he/she will not as that individual may lose his/her job or get arrested for doing anything illegal. For instance, illegal copying of designs, stealing others information and using it for personal or organizations interests is immoral and it will cause horrible consequences. So, members will avoid doing unethical acts because they acknowledge they will be paying the high and unforgivable price for their actions.

The 6th code is also related to Kantian Ethics. Its aim is to make members of the organization stay productive, positive, progressive and professional. Just like the 1st code, it also threads morality with categorical imperatives of Kantian ethics. Members are bound to follow this code else their less productivity or unprofessional behavior will cause them heavy consequences.

c. 3rd Ethical Theory Virtue Ethics

Lying and dishonesty are the most immoral conducts. They should not exist in a successful or progressing organization. For that reason, the 5th code of conduct is made which is related to virtue ethics. It deals with the moral character of the members rather than their actions and doings. The aim of this code is to allow members of the organization to practice honesty and truth which will further help in the building of their moral character.

Constant pursuing of advancement in competency and professional knowledge of members will allow their character to gain confidence, knowledge, and wisdom of what they do. That is why code 7th is made which is related to virtue ethics as well. The aim of the 7th code is to polish each members well-being of work, enhance skills and elevate confidence. It is made for education which is key for molding the personality of a person.

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Codes of Conduct and Theories of Ethics

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Writer Choose

Ethical Dilemma of Law Sue in Dentistry

Dentistry faces important ethical dilemmas. The ethical dilemma of law sues in dentistry is an important aspect. The dentist-patient interactions, access to dental health, awareness of the need of the population, among others, attract discussion and should be addressed on the basis of the relevant ethics to professional practice. The law should be understood as a public consensus, often temporary, that is, as an approximation to moral as a social institution of mandatory rules of action dictated by a formally recognized authority with force power.

The practice of dentistry is considered "a profession", that is, a learned work, through which the individual tries to solve their material needs and the people in their charge, serve society and perfect themselves as a moral being. Every profession is made and exercised in society, it is for and for others, that is why its moral burden. When a profession is no longer useful to the society that gave it its origin, it will let it disappear. The appearance of trades or professions comes hand in hand with certain secrets or unique ways of doing things and, with them, the codes (oaths to maintain the prestige of the family or group) that are transmitted from generation to generation.

These codes, type promise-oath, were extended to professional groups where they took the form of moral standards that regulated the relationships of the subjects within the group: "a professional ethics" "deontology" or theory of duties (should be). At present, there are many professions that have been given a moral code representative of the norms and values ​​that sustain the group. It is a valuable instrument for regulating the behavior of specialists and their relationships with consumers of their products or services; In short, they are a means of moral education. Dental surgeons (professional dentists) are for society experts in high knowledge and specific skills, committed individually and collectively to give priority to the welfare of their patients.

Kantian theory is one of the most important in the field of dentist. Legal dentistry is to the practice of dentistry what the Judiciary is to Ethics, according to Emmanuel Kant, that is, the punishment of the flagrancy of a negative act against humanity. The dental profession is at the service of public health. The moral satisfaction of the service rendered must prevail over personal benefit. The purpose of this code is to establish general norms that tend to support the moral principles on which professional practice must rest. The dentist, as a cultured and disciplined man who has cultivated his intelligence, has the right to act in the social, political, scientific or religious orders according to his preferences, with no more limitation than those imposed by the Constitution.

Hedonism is the second theory in the field of dentist. The relationships of dentists with the large community involve responsibilities with regard to the correct standards for professional advertising. Dentists have an important role in public health while preserving public dental health and also in relation to dangerous epidemic diseases, such as HIV; in addition, they have responsibilities related to access to dental care, which may force the union to be politically and educationally active when social measures are formulated that determine the distribution of resources for health care. The useful, the good and the pleasant are identified, being utilitarianism related to ancient hedonism, but while classical hedonism seeks individual pleasure, utilitarianism pursues collective well-being, under the idea that collective well-being is one that can be derive the individual. The utilitarian thinks that the individual is fundamentally selfish, but tries to make him see that the best direction his search can take for what is useful to achieve happiness, individually, is to achieve the welfare of those around him; subjecting individual welfare to the achievement of collective well-being. What is useful for man, as a social being, is the improvement of society. That is why the improvement of the Society is the path that must be undertaken by someone who is selfish and seeks what is most useful and pleasant, that is, what happiness can bring.

Utilitarianism requires the constant repetition of ethical judgments, which will be related to the use made of things. A simple element cannot achieve its purposes independently of the Whole and if its purposes are to achieve happiness through usefulness, it will have to pursue the useful social as that from which its individual pleasure can be derived. No other sense finds the utilitarianism of life in Society than that related to the benefit that can be derived from it for all its members. Consider that this is the reason why men began to live together, the common usefulness, and that this is the purpose of this type of life, without which it would not make sense to maintain it.

To conclude, today most dentists in their daily activities are guided by the humane goals of improving the population, relieving patients of suffering, and disinterested medical help to people in need. However, some doctors see the patient as a direct or indirect source of their income and existence. The moral and ethical sphere of the dentist depends on his (her) moral character, which is formed on the basis of education in the family and school.

The professional and ethical sphere of the dentist is somehow connected with the professional activity. In this case, non-standard moral and ethical relationships can arise in the dental office between the doctor and the patient, which are based on the so-called human factor.

Writer Choose

Discussion

Name of the Student

University Name

Discussion

Does virtue ethics demand too much of us? Why or why not?

Virtue ethics theories mostly took inspiration from Aristotle, and he defined the virtuous person has the ideal character traits. These traits are derived from natural internal tendencies; however, these traits need to be nurtured. After proper nourishment these traits become stable. The aim of theories of virtue ethics is not to identify the universal principles which can be applied in a moral situation. The virtue ethics theories explain broad concepts such as; how a person should live? What is the good life? Aristotle proposed a theory of virtue ethics named as agent-centered theory, the primary focus of this theory is on the people and their characters instead of a single action (Shafer-Landau, 2012). According to Aristotle morality is more than an action, as it addresses “what should I be” rather than "what should I do." According to virtue ethics, a person should always act the same in a particular situation to ensure unbiasedness and good for others. It is true that virtue ethics demands too much from us.

Virtue is a good trait of our character. It is an act to notice, value, expect, desire, choose, feel, act and react in certain ways. Virtue is differentiated from the bad actions which are not welcomed in society. Agent-based virtue ethics is another Aristotelian theory of virtue ethics which treats the characters or traits as the basis for rest or the ethics (Van Zyl, 2009). Virtue ethics emphasis on the role of the character and virtue of the person for a long time and permanently. It doesn't focus only on the consequences and results. According to this theory the moral status of actions of a person is entirely dependent on the morality of the agent, and his character traits. Another theory is duty-based ethics or deontology which states that we must act according to the certain set of principles without considering the outcomes. For instance, the rules of deontology are; it is wrong to kill innocent people, it is wrong to tell lies, and it is right to keep promises.

Ethics care is the powerful version of virtue ethics. This form of virtue ethics is motivated by the thoughts that man thinks in masculine terms awhile woman thinks in feminine terms (Ude, 2016). The masculine names are justice and autonomy while the female term is caring, patience, self-sacrifice, etc. It shows how the virtues are different according to the genders. For judging virtues of a person, the observant must consider the background of the person. As the sex of a person influences the virtues, there are other classifications of demography as well which influence the virtues of the person. Virtuous people disagree with each other because of their personal believes and difference in their ethical considerations. They disagree with others due to the difference in their ethical judgment. From all these discussions and theories it is proved that virtue ethics demands too much from us. It is not easy to sustain the status of a virtuous person. Once the habit is developed, then a person can pertain that specific virtue.

References

Shafer-Landau, R. (2012). The Fundamentals of Ethics (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Ude, P. (2016). Virtues and Character in Social Work Practice. Social Work, 61(3), 283-284.

COPY THE CITATION TO CLIPBOARD

Van Zyl, L. (2009). Agent-based Virtue Ethics and the Problem of Action Guidance. Journal Of Moral Philosophy, 6(1), 50-69.

Writer Choose

LNK_ (/bjbj,E,E NN/N/8, OOOOOOgY0, fffOO, f 

Codes of Conduct and Theories of Ethics

Your Name (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Introduction

In the future, I want to open a dress designing company of my own. My aim is to open an organization which follows codes and conduct of ethics and morality. There are various principles that must be observed in any business.

Discussion

I will create the following codesof conduct for the organization I aim to run in the future

1- Members of the company shall obey all existing codes, laws, and regulations governing practices of business recognized by the federal government, community state or any other body of government where the business is conduct.

2- Members of the company shall consider safety, welfare, and health of the public all the times in their business conduct.

3- Members of the company shall not abet or assist any illegal or improper comportment of anyone linking with a project.

4- Members may propose professional services to the client in case of any legal compensation issue.

5- Members shall be truthful and candid while communicating professionally.

6- Members shall agree with the maintenance of principles of personal and professional conduct which will positively mirror profession and association.

7- Members shall pursue to constantly advance their competency and professional knowledge.

Codes of conduct

Codes of conduct are one of the most important things, needed for running a business. It is about ethics that ought to be observed. It also depends on the type of business, which business ethics is going to be followed. Code of conduct guides not only the management or the workers but also at the same it needs to be observed by the owners as well, so that they could make policies that would be beneficial for their business in a long run. It is important as it helps all the employees and authorities in making those decisions that would be in accordance with ethics and values of the company (Nelu Burcea,et,al,2014). Taking code of conduct in consideration, it becomes clear that there is a need to make such principles of code of conduct that would be addressing and identifying what sort of things a business is going to deal with.

1st Ethical Theory Utilitarianism

2nd code of conduct is related to utilitarianism. Its aim is to make a member of the organization think beyond their or organizations interests. It focuses on reducing the wrongdoings and increasing noble doings by thwarting organization and its members to provide harm to the public with their actions. Taking care of safety, health and welfare of the public must be the top priority of the workers. This particular code involves utilitarian forces which rejects personal immoral interests and think about others in taking any particular action (Frederick,et,al,2007). For instance, not disturbing public with garbage and noise of machines, etc. and taking proper measures to take care of such issues. It has been seen that the owner and the management have to look for the greater good. Only those decisions should be taken that would be beneficial for greater numbers of people. Utilitarianism is the ethical theory that emphasizes on the idea that one must determine right from wrong by looking at the outcome. In the case of the dress designing business, this thing must be kept in mind that customers demand must be considered as the utmost priority. Being an owner who would be running a dress designing company, I will make those policies and decisions that would be least harming for any customer. It is the age where culture mixing is common so keeping in view, beliefs and cultural norms of all the community I would like to design most appropriate dresses. Another major thing that I would be looking at is, promoting process of recycling. It is the process that helps in reusing the waste material. Recycling is one of the most important things that boost the economy of the country and it is the best way of helping maximum numbers of people. I would discourage all those activities in my company that would be disturbing for people. Next thing that I would like to implement in my company would be affordable prices that most of the customers would afford easily. Undoubtedly, price of items is the main thing that makes the customers worry, so for saving them from any hustle, I would keep this point in consideration that despite earning extra profit, following of some business ethics must be considered at the same time.

2nd Ethical Theory Kantian Ethics

1st code is related to Kantian Ethics. This code bridges moral values with the categorical imperative of Kantian ethics. As, any member of the company may want to take steps against the law, codes or regulations but he/she will not do so as that individual would lose his/her job. One may get arrested for doing anything illegal. For instance, illegal copying of designs, stealing others Information and using it for personal or organizations interests is immoral and it will cause horrible consequences. So, members will avoid doing unethical acts that would be damaging for the organization.

They will be paying high and unforgivable price for their actions if they will not follow code of conducts (Ferrell,et,al,2019). Generally, there has be seen the implementation of this ethical code of conduct in business ethics and particularly in the case of dress designing, employees are mainly trained for avoiding such acts that would be casting negative impacts on the reputation of the business as a whole. For example, being the owner of a dress designing company, I would make a policy that would be strictly dealing with those employees who would be violating any of these laws that would be illegal in the eye of the law. I would never allow my employees to appreciate any of the ideas that would be a copy of some other designer as it would be unethical to take away all the hard work of any person by making copies of original work and giving that item our own name.

The 6th code is also related to Kantian Ethics. Its aim is to make members of the organization stay productive, positive, progressive and professional. Just like the 1st code, it also threads morality with categorical imperatives of Kantian ethics (Forschler,et,al,2013). Members are bound to follow this code otherwise their less productivity or unprofessional behavior will cause them heavy consequences.

Being the owner of the company, my first aim would be taking my workers in confidence and encourage them so that they could deliver best that they have. For making my workers most productive and high yielding, I would try to make the atmosphere as positive as I could. Ethics also stresses that workers must be given all their rights so that they could own the company.

3rd Ethical Theory Virtue Ethics

Lying and dishonesty are the most immoral conducts. They should not exist in a successful progressing organization. For that reason, the 5th code of conduct is made which is related the virtue ethics. It deals with the moral character of the members rather than their actions. The aim of this code is to allow members of the organization to practice honesty and truth which will further help in the building of their moral character (Sison,et,al,2014). One of the most important things that I would make sure to implement in my company would be, no place would be given to the dishonest workers. I would make this thing clear to all my workers that business would run because of them so they have to be sincere with the work they would be assigned. Speaking and supporting truth under all circumstances would not only help business in growing but at the same time, honesty would make them good human beings as well that would be helping in building their moral character.

Constant pursuing of advancement incompetency and professional knowledge of members will allow their character to gain confidence, knowledge, and wisdom of what they do. That is why code 7th is made which is related to virtue ethics. The aim of the 7th code is to polish each members well-being of work, enhance skills and elevate confidence. It is made for educating workers and it would work like a key for molding personality of a person. Taking a look at the virtue ethics I wont be wrong to say that workers would be educated. Education that they would be given will not only help them while working in this company rather their professional training would help them in long run (Shafer-Landau,et,al,2012). Education that the workers would be given for making them an effective part of the organization would polish their hidden talent so that they could see the unseen in their personalities and use these positive factors for achieving success in their lives.

Conclusion

So, as a whole, it could be concluded that ethics is one of the important things that must be given prime value in any business so that one could satisfy himself/herself along with the customers for whom all the efforts are made as they are the main target of any business.

References

Ferrell, O.C., Harrison, Dana E., Ferrell, Linda, Hair, Joe F. (2019). Business ethics, corporate social responsibility, and brand attitudes An exploratory study.Journal of Business Research,95, 491-501.

Forschler, S. (2013). Two Dogmas of Kantian Ethics.The Journal of Value Inquiry,47(3), 255-269.

Frederick, R. (2007). Utilitarianism and Business Ethics. InA Companion to Business Ethics(pp. 17-29). Malden, Massachusetts, USA Blackwell.

Nelu Burcea, Ion Croitoru. (2014). BUSINESS ETHICS.Journal of Public Administration, Finance and Law,3(6), 139-143.

Shafer-Landau, R. (2012). The Fundamentals of Ethics (2nd ed.) New York Oxford University Press, Inc

Sison, Alejo G, Sison, Alejo G. (2014).Happiness and virtue ethics in business The ultimate value proposition.

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Codes of Conduct and Theories of Ethics

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Running head Codes of Conduct and Theories of Ethics

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Writer Choose

Walmart Subcontractors

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Walmart Subcontractors

Walmart and Old Navy are the global retailers with huge revenue and strong supply chain networks around the globe. They are highly profitable and expanded its operations in different countries in the world. They have subcontractors in various countries where the products are produced at a lower cost. Here we will discuss some unethical issues with the subcontractors of Walmart, and the unethical practices and approach of Walmart towards its subcontractors. Walmart outsourced and subcontracted its production in the developing countries where the basic standards are not followed by these companies. It is the responsibility of Walmart to ensure before going to subtracting the standard of the subcontractors. Some of these subcontractors are not following the basic industrial laws regarding the work environment, child labor, and minimum wages. The standard of life of the labors in these factories is below the standard. The monthly salaries are lowest, and child labors are employed there, moreover, the factory premises have no safety and security parameters. In case of emergency, there are no emergency exits, fire extinguishers, and other basic facilities. In Bangladesh in 2012 one of the Walmart's subcontractors Tazreen got fire and there were hundreds of labor died, and injured. Walmart didn't compensate the affected families through Walmart claims that it cares about its people. According to the theory of Virtue Ethics, the business should develop good characters such as fairness, the wellbeing of its stakeholders, help the community for good lives (Huq & Stevenson, 2018).

Ethics is one of the most important requirements for the success of business in the current era. The retail industry cannot be an exception to this trend. The large corporations are supposed to set a benchmark for small businesses in the trend of following ethics and work according to the ethical theories. The organization and its subcontractors are part of the same business with the same stake and objectives. The large corporations like Walmart and Old Navy should uphold its subcontractors in the developing countries. They should not exploit them and try to provide them the sources of better lives. According to the theory of Deontology, the businesses should focus on their ethical duties and actions which should be ethically right. This theory argues that there are certain actions which should be avoided even though these maximize the total utilities for the business (Shafer-Landau, 2012). In the case of Walmart and Tazreen, Walmart knew about the factory premises, child laboring, and pay of the labors, however, it ignored these practices for maximizing its utility.

Most of the large corporations focus to raise its revenue and produce more profit for its shareholders, however, they do not invest in their people to uphold their standard of life. According to the utilitarianism theory, businesses increase there a total utility which is produced in the society, however, they do not distribute the utilities among the members or stakeholders in the society (Arzu et al., 2010). They analyze every project and opportunity in terms of their cost and benefits analysis. Walmart has refused to compensate the affected people of Tazreen and denied that Tazreen is their subcontracting. Moreover, after a year another subcontractor in Bangladesh Simcoe had collapsed, it was fulfilling the Walmart's orders itself and through other firms. However, Walmart did not take any action against the company's unethical practices and did not provide them enough fund for the improvement of their work environment. It is the ethical responsibilities of Walmart to provide them grants to improve their work environment and pay them sufficient amount to hire staff with good salaries. Moreover, Walmart should ensure that there is no child labors and other unethical activities in their subcontracting firms.

References

Shafer-Landau, R. (2012). The Fundamentals of Ethics (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Huq, F., & Stevenson, M. (2018). Implementing Socially Sustainable Practices in Challenging Institutional Contexts: Building Theory from Seven Developing Country Supplier Cases. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-28.

Arzu Ozsozgun, Emel Ozarslan, & Halil Emre Akbas. (2010). “Insider Trading from the Perspectives of Two Ethical Theories: Utilitarianism and Kant’s Approach”. International Journal of Business and Management Studies, 2(1), International Journal of Business and Management Studies, 01 January 2010, Vol.2(1).

Writer Choose

Title page

Philosophy

Introduction

Ethical practice in dentistry is linked to the aspects of informed consent, patient’s autonomy and respecting integrity. Decision-making regarding best treatment has always been an ethical issue in dentistry. Healthcare providers in this field encounter ethical dilemmas in daily practices where they need to brief patients about their rights. Before acquiring consent, the dentist has an ethical responsibility of informing the patient about the benefits and risks of the treatment. The conflicts often arise between what the patient mentioned in the advance directive and the doctor’s views on the patient’s condition. The central confusion depicts the uncertainty if the patient will still want what she wanted previously.

Ethical theories

The ADA principles of ethics and code of conduct highlight the principles that dentists must adopt in their practices. This defines that the dentists have a responsibility towards clients and society. They must act in the best interest of the patient by choosing the right treatment. The five common ethical codes that a dentist needs to follow in his profession include, non-malefic, patient autonomy, benefice, justice, and veracity. The principle of benefice allows staff to take a decision when the patient lacks competence. This is most apparent in the situation when the patient is undergoing severe pain CITATION Swi06 \l 1033 (Swick, Bryan, & Longo, 2006). During the last few years, the doctor-patient relationship has been moved to the patient's autonomy. The western medicines give more weight to the principle of autonomy that means considering what the patient wants. Taking any decision against the will of the patient is not acceptable in western medicine. Patients have an active role in making decisions about their treatment. The principle of autonomy allows the patient to refuse any treatment irrespective of the implications. The responsibility of the doctors is to guide the patients about the benefits and risks of the treatment. The patient has the power to refuse treatment even if it causes more harm. The principle of benefice gives more power to the dentist where he can decide to choose or refuse treatment. The dentist can choose treatment when it is favorable for the patient. The client may encounter personally including the pain, pleasure, and discomfort. While the critical interest reflects the assessment of the patient’s conditions CITATION Car142 \l 1033 (Caraiane, Florin, & Cristina, 2014).

Virtue ethics

Theory of virtue ethics can be applied in dentistry for differentiating between right and wrong. Virtue ethics claims that one must follow a correct motivational structure. The dentist takes an oath that he will use his skills for assuring oral health that indicates that his ethical responsibility is to act in the best interest of the patient. Virtue ethics in a character-based approach that considers morality behind the actions of an individual. Having particular attributes of virtue allow a person to act morally. This motivates a dentist to choose the right decision that lacks evilness. A dentist who value patient's health and safety more than personal gain act according to the philosophy of virtue ethics CITATION Car142 \l 1033 (Caraiane, Florin, & Cristina, 2014).

In real life, dentists encounter many situations where they can choose personal advantage over patient welfare. Such as suggesting a longer treatment for generating income. This is against the ideology of virtue ethics. In such a situation, the dentist is focusing on personal welfare by neglecting patient's welfare. The ethical model of virtue ethics also related internet privacy with human freedom and intellectual autonomy. To solve the ethical dilemma it is critical to consider the role of virtue ethics. Virtue ethics is against the notion of causing harm to an individual. Plutonian views of virtue ethics stress on self-determination depicting the need for respecting one's autonomy. According to the ethical models depriving people of internet privacy is unethical CITATION Car142 \l 1033 (Caraiane, Florin, & Cristina, 2014). The dentist's role according to this theory is not limited to the rules and principles, but he should be able to cultivate good character. Honesty, dedication, and sincerity are common attributed associated with this theory. It indicates that the dentist must be able to integrate these attributes in his practice.

Ethical theory of autonomy

Ethical theory of autonomy presented by Kant states it is, “to think, or not to think; to move, or not to move, according to the preference or direction of his own mind,” rather than according to the preference or direction of any other person” CITATION Guy03 \l 1033 (Guyer, 2003). Patients are unable to make the right decision due to poor or inadequate information regarding treatment. The principle of informed consent ensures that the dentist cannot misguide the patients. Moral implications of the decision that depends on differentiating between right and wrong. Autonomy remains one of the critical concerns in medical ethics. The principles of autonomy are one of the central notions in western medicine. However, the principle of autonomy works when the patient/ person is in the best position to take the decision. Ethics in dentistry claims, “the process of informed consent requires comprehensive knowledge on the part of the practitioner, uncompromising veracity, unbiased presentation of all reasonable alternatives, and consequences including costs and the probability of outcomes” CITATION Kem18 \l 1033 (Vanishree, Ganesh, & Umashankar, 2018). The principle of autonomy states that the patients’ autonomy is vital in all medical decision explicitly regarding his treatment. It is plausible that the patient may not be in a position to decide due to his medical condition, making the principle of autonomy less effective.

Informed consent saves the dentist from future complications. “It safeguards the dentist against misuse by patients. At the same time, patients are also safe from anything done apart from the treatment committed at the beginning” CITATION Kem18 \l 1033 (Vanishree, Ganesh, & Umashankar, 2018). Application of the principles of benefice and nonmaleficence depicts that the healthcare provider cannot take any action that harm’s the patient.

The principle of a benefice in medical professional ethics states that the nurses must take actions that are in the best interest of the patient and is not against the autonomy of the patient. The principle of the benefice is important in a dentistry profession that restricts them from taking actions that are not in favor of the patient. In the present scenario ethical conflict appears as the nurse needs to think what is good for the patient and herself. Any action that is the patient will make nurse unethical and wrong CITATION LAJ00 \l 1033 (Jansen, 2000). The principle of trust depicts that dentists have a role in helping the family to maintain hope. The principle of empathy states that the healthcare provider must try to see things from the patient's perspectives and understand their views. The principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence restrict dentist from taking actions that could deteriorate the condition of the patient CITATION Kem18 \l 1033 (Vanishree, Ganesh, & Umashankar, 2018).

Duty-based ethics

Duty-based ethics is another theory applicable in the field of dentistry. It stresses on, “certain attributes of professionalism, such as altruism, compassion, respect, duty, honor, and integrity, to gain and maintain their specialty certification" CITATION Swi06 \l 1033 (Swick, Bryan, & Longo, 2006). The integration of this theory into dentistry ensures that the dentist fulfills his duty towards patient ethically. Duty-based ethics stresses on professional competency of the dentist depicting that he must be able to provide adequate care to the patient. Competence indicates that the dentist must be able to conduct immediate and accurate diagnosis for identifying the right treatment CITATION SSe19 \l 1033 (Sellars & Wassif, 2019). He offers the best possible treatment for preventing pain, disease and related complications. He must be capable of carrying out practices according to the fundamental principles.

The theory also ensures that the dentist treats the patient with compassion and integrity. Care is essential in the field of dentistry and medicine healthcare providers have a duty of saving the people. The dentist will identify the cause of pain and act ethically for helping the patient in recovering CITATION Swi06 \l 1033 (Swick, Bryan, & Longo, 2006). This theory focuses on the rights of duty and recognizing the rights of others. This means he identifies the needs of the patient and acts in the best possible way that will comfort the patient. The dentist must not neglect the rights of the patients such as the right to choose the treatment. He must also inform the patient about the costs and the benefits of the treatment. The client also has a right to learn about the risks associated with each treatment.

Conclusion

The most suitable decision is to respects precedent autonomy. The principle of benefice means leaving the decision on the doctors, violating the principles of autonomy. Western medicine gives more consideration to the patient's will and autonomy. Virtue ethics, ethics of autonomy and duty-based ethics are three common ethical theories applicable in the field of dentistry. Virtue ethics encourages a density to choose between right and wrong. Under the influence of this theory, he will choose the right course of action that will result in the best interest of the patient. Ethics of Autonomy states that the dentist must inform the patient about the treatment and complications. This means taking informed consent before starting treatment. Duty-based ethics states that the dentist is ethically bound to fulfill his duty of treating a patient with compassion, honesty, and professionalism.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Caraiane, A., Florin, B. F., & Cristina, N. (2014). DENTISTRY AND DENTAL HIGH EDUCATION: ETHICAL ASPECTS. International Journal of Medical Dentistry, 4 (2), 25-29.

Guyer, P. (2003). Kant on the theory and practice of autonomy. Social Philosophy and Policy, 20 (2), 70-98.

Jansen, L. A. (2000). The virtues in their place: virtue ethics in medicine. Theoretical medicine and bioethics, 21 (3), 261-276.

Swick, H. M., Bryan, C. S., & Longo, L. D. (2006). BEYOND THE PHYSICIAN CHARTER: reflections on medical professionalism. Perspectives in Biology and Medicin, 49 (2), 263-75.

Sellars, S., & Wassif, H. S. (2019). Is dentistry the orphaned field of medicine? Ethical consideration for evidence-based dentistry. British Dental Journal, 226 (3), 177-179.

Vanishree, K., Ganesh, P., & Umashankar, K. (2018). The Top 10 ethical challenges in dental practice in Indian scenario: Dentist perspective. Contemporary Clinical Dentistry, 9 (1).

Writer Choose

Utilitarianism and Its Impact

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Utilitarianism and Its Impact

The term utilitarianism is the new field in the field of ethics which helps the people to understand the philosophical terms in relatively easy way where the meaning is also cleared to the people without any efforts and the direct purpose of the code of life in a different way where the people grasp the knowledge from and within the surroundings so that they can quickly implement it on their life as well. It seems like a perfect term, but all these terms are equally relevant to our daily life.

Utilitarians are those people who believe that the purpose of life depends upon the moral qualities and values of life which are related to our daily routine and the consequences generated by them. This refers to the amount of happiness that should be celebrated in such a way that the generation of the results is equal to that of the number which is right or wrong.

Discussion

The approach of the utilitarians refers to those people who believe that the happiness is the amount of content which increased the satisfaction and the unhappiness that is faced by the people is they meet the amount of stress. This is the case where the evil and angelic factors of life are directly linked with each other and the results obtained in this aspect are opposite when it comes to the rights of the animals and their impact on the people whose approach towards the pragmatic approach is highly segregated.

This approach is noticed as well when it comes to the non-humans which are the animal. They believe in a similar approach towards the animals. They believe in showing the same attitude with the animals as well as they are also part of the society and they have identical rights like that of human beings (Frey,2011). All these perspectives are the approaches which enable the human beings to portray the same behavior with the animals as they also need love and they also want that similar affection and good deeds from the humans which can bring the happiness and they can also have faith in doing good and expecting the same functional behavior in return. This is the factor of loyalty that enables them to have good deeds as animals as well. This can be only occurred in the tame or the pet animals which are living close to the human beings, and they can have an impact on the people as well as many people who have evil thoughts can learn the basic rules of humanity from the animals as well (Bègue & Laine, 2017).

There are also some cases where the consequences generated on the people are having a negative impact, but on the whole if we look at the philosophy of the utilitarian's, the people are the consequences generated on the people are having a negative impact where they are facing the inhumane behavior from the animals are not realistic but still they believe in doing good, as a result, will be generated on the basis of their deeds and the response they will get will be in the other world on their moral values.

These are the moral values which everyone should learn, and this should be followed by all the people in all the parts of the world so that the good deeds should be developed in the world and somehow or the other the evil should be eradicated from the society. These philosophical approaches towards life are the main reason from which the people learn about all the aspects of life that they are unaware of and these values should be practiced everywhere.

References

The book pdf.pdf - Microsoft Word Online. (2019). Onedrive.live.com. Retrieved 23 February 2019, from https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?cid=FC82B02048CEDE55&authKey=%21APUA\

Frey, R. G. (2011). Utilitarianism and animals. In The Oxford Handbook of Animal Ethics.

Bègue, L., & Laine, P. J. (2017). Moral utilitarianism and attitudes toward animals. Ethics & Behavior, 27(3), 173-178.

Writer Choose

Asparagus Business in Peru

Name of the Student

University Name

Asparagus Business in Peru

Asparagus is one of the most profitable crops in Peru. It has raised the business of the local farmers. It is not only a source of profit but also increased the employment level in Peru. According to the video, there is zero unemployment rate in the country due to the increasing production of asparagus. It has controlled the poverty in the country to a great extent. However, the primary issue that the farmers are facing the depletion of water resources. The supply of water is not accessible to all the farmers, which consequently lessen the production of this crop. It ultimately reduces the sales and the profit earned with this corp. The healthy and wealthy farmers used the water resources while the poor farmers did not get water for their crops. Here we will discuss the theories related to these issues and the ethical consideration of the water management. To this issue, the rights theory of ethics applies because water is the basic right of all the plants, and the owners of the plants (Lozano-Cabedo, & Gómez-Benito, 2017). So it should not be discriminated by the economic position or other standards. There are some rights which are moral and natural, that one should not be underprivileged from that right. Water is the basic need for survival of all the living things including plants, animal, and humans. So a man cannot stop the supply by the economic factor. Here the poor farmers are facing the problem, and the government is not taking action to resolve this issue.

The government must provide water to all the farmers to water their lands. The government should not follow the theory of utilitarianism in which they focus on the consequences and results. However, they do not see whether is action is right or wrong (Shafer-Landau, 2012). The ethics theory of the utilitarian stated that there is the greatest good for the most significant number of people. The majority of people are poor farmers so the state must benefit the masses, not the few strong people. The government should not concern with its short term gain. Instead, the government should support all the farmers equally and raise its export around the globe. The gain of solving the water problem will benefit the whole country and the citizens. So the utilitarianism theory could be used in this sense and will provide long term benefits. The rise in production of asparagus will reduce the unemployment level in the country and will bring prosperity in the country. The youth and other citizens will get jobs and sufficient income through the businesses related to this product and the jobs associated with this work.

The benefits of this crop are for all the country and its economy. By proper management of water, the country can boost its exports, and increase the per capita income of its citizens. Here we can apply the Kantian ethics theory because this theory is concerned about the actions not the results of the actions. According to this theory, all the actions should be righteous; there should be no wrong actions for the right results (Kent et al., 2016). The farmers are growing asparagus to create new job opportunities and increase the exports of a country. It also provides financial support to thousands of people both directly and indirectly. The purpose of this product is not to become a rich person, having high power, and become wealthy. However, the only aim is to survive and provide others the sources of earnings. They can also regularly seek out more sources of environment-friendly watering of the crops.

References

Kent, Sommerfeldt, & Saffer. (2016). Social networks, power, and public relations: Tertius Iungens as a cocreational approach to studying relationship networks. Public Relations Review, 42(1), 91-100.

Lozano-Cabedo, C., & Gómez-Benito, C. (2017). A Theoretical Model of Food Citizenship for the Analysis of Social Praxis. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 30(1), 1-22.

Shafer-Landau, R. (2012). The Fundamentals of Ethics (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Writer Choose

Ethics in Food Business

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Ethics in Food Business

Tyson food is one often most famous food industry of the USA, and it is the second largest food processor in the world. It mainly deals with beef, chicken, and pork. It is also famous for exporting a large percentage of beef out of the United States. This food industry as being a global food maker keeps this thing I mind that it has to take care of t ethics that are being applied in various countries. There are different cultures that exist in this world and it is not necessary that all the cultures are going to have to same way of looking at the things that are being used as the edible, as it has been seen that there are different food items that are appropriate in one culture, but the same thing may be not acceptable for the people of other cultures. So by taking all the things in mind, this food marking industry keeps certain ethics in mind, but these things cannot be denied as well that different societies and cultures have different ideologies and moral values regarding one concept and it is almost impossible to find a common concept that would be good for all humans.

In his article “Ethical issues facing the Food Industry," Thompson (1993) discusses various ethical issues that many food industries face and also Paul spotlight on the ethical theories that industries that are involved in the food production. Though each of the industry tries to take care of the ethical issues there comes many things that industries think, one of the things is the conception of the utilitarian theory that says one must do the thing that gives benefit to more people even than if it is not beneficial or good for few. Most of the industries think that they cannot gather all the people on one page so they should do what will facilitate more than those who would be having any social, religious or ethical issue with it. In this article, there could be seen other theories as well, such as rights theory that is in favor of the people who would be having an ethical issue. When it comes to the food industries as it could be seen that beef is not allowed in India as it is against their religious teaching to eat the beef. However, the same beef is eaten by other people who belong to other countries and cultures. Here the right theory could be applied as it says that the people for whom a food product or item is not appropriate ethical then they have the moral right that they should be protected (Fernando & Moore, 2015). Having rights mean that people have special protection, against the things that are inappropriate according to their moral and religious teachings.

There is another theory that he has pointed in this article and that is virtue theory, and it is the act, in which a virtuous person would be doing when putting in the same circumstances. When the theory of virtue is applied in the food industry, it could be seen that industries which make food products that don't fit in other culture should think what they should do morally. Suppose there are five food industries that are facing the same ethical issue, when these industries are left to take their own decision may be two are going to make a decision that would be beneficial for the users but at the same may be the rest of the three industries are going to take a decision that would be against the ethics but would give them financial benefit (Scutaru, 2013). So as a whole it could be concluded that ethical issues are being faced by many industries that make the food item and they know that they could make everyone happy at one time as they make a product that would be appropriate for one culture or society but would not be appropriate for the other.

References

Fernando, M., & Moore, G. (2015). MacIntyrean Virtue Ethics in Business: A Cross-Cultural Comparison. Journal of Business Ethics, 132(1), 185-202.

Scutaru Liliana. (2013). THE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF THE FIRMS AND ETHICS IN BUSINESS. Analele Universităţii Constantin Brâncuşi Din Târgu Jiu : Seria Economie, 2(2), 235-240.

Shafer-Landau, R. (2012). The Fundamentals of Ethics (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Thompson, P. B. (1993). Ethical Issues Facing the Food Industry. Journal of Food Distribution Research, 24(856-2016-57676), 12.

Writer Choose

Agribusiness Ethical Issues

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Agribusiness Ethical Issues

With the advancement in science and technology in every aspect of human life is continuously changing. Technology is taking over everything and every now, and then something new comes up to be used in everyday life. These technologies are brought up or induced in the community to make life easier yet many feel like it has made life more miserable for many. For instance, agriculture is essential for mankind survival, and it has been the way of life since the beginning of humanity.

Science and technology have greatly affected the field of agriculture and so farmers. New technological equipment has made life more comfortable, however, the financial struggles of farmers and struggles with crop production have multiplied immensely. On the one hand, factories or prominent companies are supposedly working hard to give relief to farmers by manufacturing pesticides and chemicals to help farmers cope with harmful insects and help farmers yield more benefits more their crops. On the other hands, these companies are criticized for experimenting their products on farmers and their lands that usually destroy crops, land and financially handicap farmers. Indian farmers are one of the examples of being used as experiments. Evidence shows that thousands of Indian farmers are killing themselves because they fail to produce enough crops even though they purchase materials such as pesticides and chemicals and even seeds that are supposed to help farmers yield more crops with less hassle. Because of these reasons, the majority of the farmers lose everything they have and even burden themselves with debts and loans. Only if the giant manufacturing factories or companies would act responsibly and take care of their customers, such a disaster can be avoided. Ethics are extremely important in any business if ethics are not met all the businesses will lead to social and worldly destruction.

Many theorists and philosophers have put forward numerous ethical theories that can be related to this issue. For example, Virtue-based ethics states that the right behaviors promotes good character and ethical values, and involves caring for participants (Arzu et al., 2010). Concerning this discussion, if these big companies behave in a way that would help the farmers rather than marketing their products in a way that would appeal to farmers and indirectly make them risk everything they have, such a tragedy could be avoided. The products these companies sell to these farmers if results in damage should be compensated and they should not let these farmers die as an adverse effect of the company's products.

Utilitarianism is another ethical based theory which stresses on the agenda that people should do what would result in the betterment of the society as a whole and do not indulge in practices that would harm the majority (Huq & Stevenson, 2018). Most of the businesses currently focus on making profits and do not care about their activities impact on society or the world as a whole. That is why they only focus on selling products and not on what good or bad would it cause as a whole. It is the ethical, moral and human responsibility of any person or a company to take the blame for their wrongful doing and make it right. The farmers who have taken their lives because they purchased products of companies that revealed that it would help them yield more and better crops must answer for their actions and make it right somehow and not allow such incidents to happen again.

Lastly, Deontological theory or duty-based ethics states that people have to uphold norms, using ethics of fairness or justice and equity. Justice means to deal fairly. In this discussion, farmers are not dealt with fairness, equity or justice at all. They are sold goods that instead of resulting in goodness, resulted in harm and ultimately in the death of thousands of farmers. Society crumbles when justice is perished (Shafer, 2012). For any society to flourish, justice must be made available to all.

References

Shafer-Landau, R. (2012). The Fundamentals of Ethics (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Huq, F., & Stevenson, M. (2018). Implementing Socially Sustainable Practices in Challenging Institutional Contexts: Building Theory from Seven Developing Country Supplier Cases. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-28.

Arzu Ozsozgun, Emel Ozarslan, & Halil Emre Akbas. (2010). "Insider Trading from the Perspectives of Two Ethical Theories: Utilitarianism and Kant's Approach." International Journal of Business and Management Studies, 2(1), International Journal of Business and Management Studies, 01 January 2010, Vol.2(1).

Writer May Choose

Santiago Rodriguez

Name of Professor

Name of Class

17 March 2017

Are We the Masters of Our Fate?

As human beings, we are confronted with good and evil actions on a daily basis. We find firefighters risking their lives to save innocents, peaceful protests turn bloody, people donating their hard-earned income to charity, etc. In each of these actions, an obvious question to ask is what leads people to act in the way they do. The answers to that question are, however, complex when carefully analyzed and may depend on our deeply held beliefs about the very nature of ourselves. In the paper, I will argue that human beings commit these evil or good actions out of a free will, hence inclining towards the idea of libertarianism being more plausible than determinism and compatibilism. The capacity of human beings to engage rationally between choices after deliberation and the moral responsibility that comes with it offer strong grounds to hold on to the libertarian view. For this purpose, various associated theories will be examined to argue for the plausibility of my view supported by scholarly arguments and information, as evidence to reinforce my claim.

Investigating moral responsibility for actions require an exploration of the main theories and arguments associated with determinism and free will. A key theory in this regard is that of libertarianism, which holds that all human beings have the capacity for free will and therefore free action by exercising that will. It opposes determinism which denies free will and holds that every action or event is determined by prior conditions or causes, as a result of which the outcome cannot be changed. It is easy to observe the conflict between the two theories, as the former sees not all events to be forcibly occurring due to causative conditions while the latter holds that actions cannot be free. The libertarian view revolves around the ability of the agent to decide or make a choice to do something other than what they did, thus, a free action. The existence of the capacity to reason and rationalize by a rational agent point towards the existence of something we call free will, which can only necessarily be exercised if we have the capability to reason. This occurs at two levels; the practical and the theoretical level. Theoretical reasoning occurs within our intellects and forms our will, whereas our practical reasoning determines what action we chose to do based on that will.

A ‘will’ refers to an individual's capacity or power to practically reason, deliberate, form practical judgments, decide or chose, create purpose or intentions, or to assess actions critically. Will itself is born out of our reason and rationality. As rational beings, our ability to reason (or will) has enabled us to freely perform our actions, allowing us to use our reason to determine the best course of action in any particular situation. A universe working on pre-determined events would thus render our capacity to reason as pointless.

On the other hand, the theory of determinism holds that there is no room for choice and decisions, as our lives' choices have been determined for us. Free will is incompatible with this idea and is only an illusion. The idea of determinism stems from causality holding that each event or action is the outcome of a cause, which is necessarily caused by another cause, eventually leading to the ‘prime mover' or the first cause. These causes have to be in accordance with natural laws. The laws of nature cannot be changed and thus the fate of mankind, as their past, is fixed and beyond control. This implies that if someone were to claim that if he had done such and such in the past, the outcome would have been different; implies that the laws of nature or the prevailing conditions would have been different, to allow the alternative event to happen.

Nevertheless, determinism has had various variations in the form of soft determinism and compatibilism. This view holds that free will and determinism can be understood to be compatible while remaining logically consistent. The argument is that freedom can either be absent or present in situations, and one’s determined motives can indicate whether one is acting free. David Hume was of the view that free will and determinism are compatible because the actions of the people are determined by their contemporary motives and personal histories, and not solely by an autonomous ‘will’ that could have been anything. These motives could be a result of our strongest desires and lead us to make seemingly free choices. According to d’Holbach, the process of making a choice, in this case, is rather a complex illusion which hides a pre-determined causative process CITATION 43C \l 1033 (4.3 Compatibilism). However, it can be inferred from the d’Holbach and Hume’s theories that they suggest only a restricted aspect of the real meaning behind a free choice and what it means to people. Both the soft and hard determinism is rejected by the libertarian or indeterminist view, since the latter strongly holds that some human actions exist in which freedom of choice and autonomy are possible. When human beings make a choice, they conventionally think of a process of examining multiple possibilities and then exercising deliberation that actively helps them will a choice. The action is much more than following our strongest desires. Thus, if an individual finds himself in the exact same situation, he or she may act differently.

The concept of ordained morality as held in determinism is incoherent. Firstly, because free will and moral responsibility are logically associated with each other. Denying any link between free will and moral responsibility would lead one to incoherence. Secondly, the deterministic view refutes itself, because if everything is determined before-hand and free will is nothing more than an illusion, it also logically necessitates that the ones who make such a claim are already pre-determined to say so. Moreover, no belief could be held to be false or true, simply because of being a predetermined event.

In this regard, William James was of the view that indeterminism is a more rational view, which is based on the notion that a certain degree of freedom of choice exists. The argument against determinism was that no judgments of regret and approval could be possible since it does not fully capture the complete lived experience. Sartre further argues in this regard is that human beings, in fact, are condemned to be free that existence precedes essence, and ourselves, choices and actions also exist in a predetermined cosmic realm before birth. However, as we orient ourselves for the future, we carefully consider our choices, weight our options and apply our ability of rational deliberation in making a choice, which makes us free CITATION 44I \l 1033 (4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism). It, therefore, alludes to our view that we are completely and uniquely responsible for the choices we make regarding our actions.

In conclusion, my personal experiences also incline me towards the existence of free will and supplement my philosophical leanings towards libertarianism. In my view, we tend to believe people through their actions more than their sayings. We often tend to believe in something that we actually do not, such as a husband who thinks he treats his wife well yet cheats on her. It is impossible to make deliberations on actions without an inborn conviction that our choices are up to us to make, in order to resolve our issues. Therefore, a deep-rooted conviction regarding free will exist owing to our capacities to rationally deliberate, even if we subscribe to the determinist view. Thus, anyone who may think free will is an illusion still acts in a way which indicates that making an alternate choice out of a set of choices was a real possibility.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY 4.3 Compatibilism. [online source], n.d.

4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism. (Online Source), n.d.

Writer May Chose

Santiago Rodriguez

Professor

Course

26 April 2019

Title: Kantian Critique of Police Brutality

Ethics and character form the basic tenets of a healthy society. In the absence of such tenets, human relations would turn disorderly and arbitrary. Our collected understanding of morals and ethics, along with our interpersonal interactions lead to the formation of agreements, laws, and thereby law enforcement. The issue of ethics thus plays a leading role in law enforcement. Police brutality refers to the use of unnecessary use of excessive force by law in dealing and interacting with the public. These brutalities can either be non-physical, in the form of abuse, threats, and undue intimidation, or physical which may involve injuring, harming, or killing a suspect. In either case, such misconduct and brutalities create a negative impact on public confidence and trust, for whom having faith and trust in law enforcement is necessary to create a safe society. In the context of the police brutality case against Stephanie Washington, Kantian ethics can be successfully applied to assess and identify the nature of the issue and address the ideals, values, or basis of the police subculture which enables this behavior. Kantian ethics would take the position that police brutality, and the culture that enables it, is immoral since such acts cannot be consistently universalized as law.

In the case of Stephanie Washington, 22, she had suffered severe injuries and hospitalized after being shot by an officer. There were no weapons observed in custody of the suspect at the time of the incident, as was admitted by the Connecticut State Police Department. The incident led to protests for a number of days where people spoke about police brutality and the police culture that enables such misconduct. The incident occurred when two officers responded to a report of an attempted robbery near a gas station. Stephanie Washington's car happened to fit a description that the officers had received. The driver, who was otherwise believed to be wrongly blamed due to a dispute, was confronted but the situation quickly escalated and led to an officer firing several wounds towards the passenger’s window, causing critical injuries to Stephanie CITATION Den19 \l 1033 (Romero). Such incidents are notably commonplace in the U.S. and have led researchers to explore the root cause of the nature of policing that leads to such ethical violations.

In accordance with what the protestors indicated, a certain subculture among law enforcement exists which believes in the justification of the use of force to perform their duties. Combined with certain implicit biases and profiling of individuals on the basis of their race, ethnicity, social status, or religion, this subculture creates an increased likelihood of the public becoming a victim to police brutality. A common policing model is the social enforcer model, which sees the use of exploitation techniques and intimidation as justified in achieving the law enforcement objectives. Another model, the crime fighter model, views every potential criminal to be an enemy, and the officer protects the citizens thereby CITATION Kar09 \l 1033 (Hess and Orthmann). In Stephanie’s case, it is evident that the crime fighter police model was influential in creating an ethical dilemma within the police officer’s mind, by creating a cultural and moral acceptance within them that all criminals should be harshly dealt with. Such culture influences the officers’ operating procedures and leads them to develop an alternative code of conduct, which justifies violence against those profiled as likely criminals that can often escape justice through the courts.

However, such conduct and the values, assumptions, and models that enable such conduct by law enforcement would not be ethically permissible to develop from a Kantian ethics point of view. Kantian ethics views certain duties to be universal such as the right to protect innocents. The ethical system emphasise the nature of actions rather than its consequences or implications, which formed the basis of the categorical imperative (CI) theory that Kant developed. The theory allows individuals in various difficult situations to solve problems in an ethically justifiable manner. Kant sees the presence of good will as the only disposition that can make a certain judgment or decision as ethical or moral. Any maxim thus adopted by an individual which is based on goodwill, and is rationally consistent, and allows for a universal application would be morally correct. Moreover, the principle further extends to treating human beings as ends in of themselves rather than as means. Thus, Kant did not give primary importance to the end result, but rather the moral intent of the act or decision itself. Duties that fall within the CI are imperative and absolute in the sense that they cannot be abandoned irrespective of the consequences, and are equally applicable.

For law enforcement officers, they are bound by the law as well as morality to perform their duties in an ethically upright manner. Such duties are required to be executed irrespective of whether we desire to fulfill them or not, or whether they have negative consequences. These duties can either be absolute, based on the CI, or conditional, based on hypothetical imperatives. A hypothetical imperative, according to Kant, is a duty which is important to perform in order to achieve a specific goal or an end, while the CI would define an unconditional duty. Any action, thus taken by law enforcement has to have consistent universalizability in being practiced by all men and women, for it to be classified as ethical. An officer, for instance, would be duty bound to charge a person with assault if there is evidence to that effect, regardless of their personal feelings about the matter. Moreover, a duty under the CI does not have to be formally stated as a policy, thus stopping a violator, and handing them a ticket, would be a duty when certain conditions are fulfilled, such as their driving history or dangerous nature of their activity.

The reasoning given by Kant is unambiguous and clear. Any act that contradicts the principle of the CI would be unethical. For instance, intentionally breaking a promise is unethical because if it is universally allowed as law, it would destroy the whole idea of promises itself, since no one would believe any promises or commitments made to them, in turn disrupting the entire social fabric. Moreover, the CI theory is extended by Kant to include the principle that any action to treat human beings must be one that treats them as an end, and not solely as a means. This principle holds that all human beings carry an intrinsic worth, and all acts should respect that worth since it is owned by rational agents. Thus, people should never be treated as an instrument to achieve some end CITATION 92M \l 1033 (Immanuel Kant). It can be observed that Kantian ethics strongly emphasize the nature of actions rather than their implications, and thus it follows, that the law enforcement must act in a way that they become genuine guardians of innocent people. Any use of unnecessary excessive force against suspects, based on their perceptions, or stereotypes, would be unethical. Moreover, he brutal assault on Stephanie is ethically unjustifiable according to Kant not just because it was done based upon stereotypes and suspicion but on basis of the ethical question that considers what would happen if every officer were to behave in a way that the two officers behaved in that particular situation. Such a world, where these acts become universal law would not just be rationally inconsistent but would disrupt the very social fabric that orders society.

Furthermore, the duty to ‘serve and protect' is one that guides all law enforcement officers beforehand, and serves as the basis for their code of ethics. The duty to engage ethically, therefore, cannot be inconsistent with their acts that are otherwise without universalizability and rely on a ‘crime fighter' policing model where human beings are treated as a means rather than an end. Therefore, the culture that originates based upon such a policing model, along with the actions, itself both violate Kantian ethics. In tense situations, when officers fail to adhere to these ethical principles, incidents such as Stephanie, or earlier ones in Ferguson that involve abuses of power and brutality, are waiting to happen. These acts of coercion are not merely impermissible because they lead to harmful consequences, but because they cannot be used as universal principles consistently in a world where every man and woman would follow them. Those actions that fail this test are morally incorrect.

To conclude, preventing incidents of police brutality would require law enforcement to make the right ethical decisions when confronted by certain defiant suspects. Although, people should also be educated to respect authority and not fall prone to herd mentality; however, regardless of the circumstances a categorical duty cannot be ignored. A police sub culture that develops on the basis of ideas that treat human beings as instruments to an end would create a sense of justification within personnel to misuse their powers. Kantian ethics believes that all officers are required to uphold a higher moral imperative irrespective of the consequences. The assault of the two officers is ethically unjustifiable, besides violating the principle of due process. Thus, training within the correct ethical system would be helpful for officers to deal with defiant individuals or suspects and act irrespective of their personal implicit biases, stereotypes, or racial profiles, in order to uphold justice.

Works Cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Hess, Kären M and Christine M H Orthmann. Introduction to law enforcement and criminal justice. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2009.

Immanuel Kant. "A Duty to Give." 9.2 Maxims: Duty to Moral Laws. n.d.

Romero, Dennis. "Protests erupt after police shoot woman near Yale University." 21 April 2019. NBC News. 26 April 2019. <https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/protests-erupt-after-police-shoot-woman-near-yale-university-n996736>.

Writer's Choice

Case Study Reflective essay

Student name

Affiliation

Date

Establishing the fact ( clinical/ psychosocial)

Clinical : Diagnosis / prognosis

Patient: William Bartling

Age : 70 Years old

Marital status: unknown

Gender: male

Presenting complaints: At the time of admission (18 April 1984) he was in ICU having chest tube and respirator for breathing. He compliant for his chest pain due to respirator and want to remove it .

Diagnosis: he was suffering from 5 fatal diseases including; emphysema, diffuse arteriosclerosis, coronary arteriosclerosis, inoperable lung cancer and aneurysm.

Risks/ complications: If his respirator removes that his death can occur.

Medication: unknown

Psycho social

Patient is an old man with five fatal diseases and he was permanently on respirator and chest tube .Patient feels discomfort and often tries to remove chest tube by himself. Mr. Bartling hands were tied with bed to stop him removing chest tube.

More than thirty years of the existence of this interdisciplinary direction, combining biological knowledge and human values and representing systematic research in the field of life sciences of human behavior in the light of moral values and principles, is associated with the dynamics of bioethical perspective: biomedical ethics gradually moves from an empirical description of medical morality to philosophical reflection on the moral issues of scientific research in the field of biology and medicine. And starting from the second half of the 80s, along with the ethical examination of biomedical technologies, a powerful layer of ethical and philosophical knowledge is formed, transforming the conceptual foundations of the traditional model of medical ethics.

Relevant value and principles

Death is a very individual event. Approaching death is a physical, psychological, social, and spiritual / existential process in which medicine has its own function. The proximity of death, on the other hand, reduces things, and on the other hand brings new problems to be solved. When the time is limited, its value is weighed more closely. The solutions made are subject to a more detailed assessment. Setting the limits of treatment requires judgment so that the patient is not burdened with unnecessary treatments and is not left without the necessary care and mental support.

Human value, human dignity, is emphasized as death approaches. In a treatment system, a person dying must be treated as a unique individual who needs good, human care. The patient’s expectations hopes, and feelings must be heard and appreciated. Ethical values ​​such as respect for life and individual rights are emphasized in the vicinity of death. The neglect of these values ​​is perceived as an insult and a throw away by medical staff. In the vicinity of death, it is time to move from disease-centered thinking to human-centered thinking.

As a sociocultural phenomenon, biomedical ethics largely determine cooperation and mutual enrichment of legal and moral consciousness in our society, setting benchmarks for biology, medical practice and managerial decision-making. It provides a moral climate in the scientific community and medical teams, an adequate moral choice of medical professionals, biologists, biotechnologists, determining the extent of their intervention in the living and the extent of their social and legal responsibility to society for the results of scientific and practical activities.

According to Callahan, argument in favor of euthanasia divided in to four categories including; the moral claim of self-determination, the moral irrelevance of the difference between killing and allowed to die, the third is the supposed scarcity of evidence to show likely harmful consequences of legalized euthanasia and the last is the compatibility of euthanasia and medical practice. (Callahan, 1992). In this case study if Mr. Bartling want to get rid of respirator while knowing that it can lead to his death is simply his will and according to Callahan it is moral claim of self-determination.

There is no distinction between "non-moral" and I think it is the biggest weakness of utilitarianism. In fact, utilitarianism does not include "non-moral behavior", but mixes "non-moral behavior" in "moral behavior" and "immoral behavior". In utilitarianism, "moral behavior" contains at least some moral behaviors. This is the case where utilitarianism mixes "non-morality" with "morality" and "immorality."

Brain activity also obliges as a standard for death. Modern intensive care is capable of supporting the lives of patients who are not capable of either independent breathing or thought processes. Therefore, there are new moral problems associated with patients on the verge of life and death.

The question of euthanasia generally arises when the patient has permanently lost awareness; when dying, he experiences strong, intolerable suffering, obliging doctors to keep the patient in a semi-conscious state or when the neonatal has functional and physiological shortcomings discordant with life. Ethical behavior has been part of the work of a physician for 2 500 years. According to the Hippocratic oath, it is the task of the physician to promote the best of the patient, to avoid producing the illusion, and to preserve the patient's trust and patient secrecy. It has been the primary responsibility of the physician to take care of the patient's illness.

The rulers have been very early in trying to influence the doctors' activities with different regulations. The oldest known laws on the rights and duties of doctors are contained in the law collection of King Babylon's Hammurab administration (1792–1750 BC). It also included penalties for medical deaths and other errors due to negligence or inadequacy of the doctor. These acts are more than a thousand years older than the earliest ethical guidelines for doctors we know.

Medical ethics are evolving over time, and new therapies create new ethical issues. Historical medical ethics focused on the clinical problem of individual patient care. Your doctor may have based his or her care decisions on conscience, intuition, accumulated experience, and general practices. Historical medical ethics also focused more on what is now considered more of a behavioral label. These include consultation methods, doctors' attitudes towards patients and colleagues, the right attitude towards teachers, and a collegial way to inform reception.

Conflict of values/ principles

The emergence of biomedical ethics is associated with a number of circumstances. The first of them is the need and need for understanding and moral evaluation of rapidly developing research in the field of biology and medicine. Their achievements have clearly demonstrated the possibility and danger of treating a person as an object of observation, experimentation and manipulation. The reason for this was the grandiose changes that occurred in the technical and technological re-equipment of the medicine of the twentieth century, cardinal changes in medical and clinical practice, which found expression in the success of genetic engineering and cloning, organ transplantation, the latest biotechnology, and the possibilities of maintaining the dying patient for a long time. Under these conditions, the need to improve not only biomedical technologies, but also ethical and humanistic factors in the professional activity of physicians and biologists has become urgent.

In this case Mr. Scott, the attorney of Mr. Bartling argued that his client is not terminally ill or mentally dead, or vegetative state so he can take decision for him. So, the doctor and hospital administration agreed to discontinue it. However, the hospital attorney simply refused and stop staff to do this. Mr. Scott proceed this case to Superior court of Los Angeles. Where he argued that Mr. Bartling is mature and legally capable to take decision about him. But the hospital attorney argued that Mr. Bartling is undecided about his death. And it can be proved by his statements when he said “I dont want to die” and “ I don’t want to live on the respirator”. It means if respirator removed than it will be an assistance for him towards homicide.

Court gave no decision regarding removing respirator or freed his hands. But later on appellant court ruled that , “if the right of a patient to self determination as to his own medical treatment is to have any meaning at all, it must be paramount to the interests of the patient’s hospitals and doctors. The right of a competent adult patient to refuse medical treatment is a constitutionally guaranteed right which must not be abridged”( Bartling Vs Superior CT)

Moreover, the incorrectness of bringing axiological, moral, and humanistic values ​​beyond the limits of the system of scientific knowledge, which most clearly revealed itself in the field of biomedical research, has become particularly noticeable. It took a rethinking of the paradigm of the value neutrality of scientific knowledge, characteristic of the technocratic thinking of classical science in general and the technical engineering model of the relationship between a doctor and a particular patient, within which a person was considered as an object of experimentation and manipulation. The emergence of such a new interdisciplinary field of research, such as bioethics , contributed to the actualization of a more adequate model of the doctor-patient relationship based on modern humanistic and democratic values.

This circumstance, which caused not only the legitimacy, but also the necessity of the emergence and functioning of biomedical ethics, is the ever-growing attention to human rights in the context of the humanization of society . The fundamental problem of modern biomedical ethics is the protection of human rights (in medicine these are the rights of the patient, the subject, etc.) when he comes in contact, forced or voluntary, with medical and biological influences and manipulations. The task of biomedical ethics is the protection of life and health, considered as the right of every person , and not the priority right of a limited circle of people (physicians and biologists), who previously considered this to be their corporate professional privilege. This interpretation of the modern biomedical ethics of the interaction of stakeholders is associated with certain cultural traditions, in particular, with the importance of legal institutions in a democratic society. It is the human right to protect one’s health that today determines many ethical and legal problems in the field of practical medicine and biomedical research and requires its own legal regulation.

However, if the mutual influence of moral and scientific discourses in biomedical ethics is very organic, since its central issue is the development of moral norms and principles governing human behavior in the life sciences, man, and wildlife (bios), then the legal status of bioethics is , unfortunately, is still in its infancy. True, by the end of the twentieth century. Many scientists have already called for the creation of a set of special laws to regulate scientific research in the field of medicine and biology and even the introduction of a scientific tribunal to resolve controversial scientific issues, and in the European bioethical community there is such a thing as bio law.(Mittelstadt & Floridi, 2016).

Today, the Western model of bioethics is an institutionally organized social technology with a system of standardized liberal values ​​that ensure the observance of individual human rights and freedoms in the field of biology and medicine. Protecting the rights of citizens from the negative consequences of the application of modern biomedical technologies is carried out here through developed ethical codes, laws, increasing the responsibility of medical professionals and biologists, expanding their social responsibilities, enshrined not only at personal, moral, but also at legal levels. Ethical mechanisms of control over the actions of doctors and scientists are complemented by a developed system of legal regulation, the formation of special bioethical committees, improving bioethical education. (Kearl,1989).

Knowledge of the approach of one's own death touches upon the fundamental questions of human existence. It initiates a spiritual process of preparation for death, which continues until the last moment. Patients often have the desire that a physician experienced in safety will understand his mental distress in front of death and also encounter him as a listening neighbor. This encounter is affected by how the doctor himself has formed a relationship with death. The nearness of death can awaken the same feelings in the doctor as the patient. Therefore, it is good for the physician to treat these feelings in some way, for example, at work guidance. Experience increases your capability. You can also learn how to interact.

List of preparation

The patient's first reaction to death near hearing can be a fight or rebellion. He may be afraid of being left alone or abandoned. There may have been unresolved issues between the relatives and the patient. Fear can also arise from the patient's experience of not managing the situation. Death threatens your own existence and the unknown is scared. The inexplicability of the life view may increase anxiety. The proximity of death raises strong feelings on the surface: anxiety, anger, bitterness and guilt or the unhealthy life. You need another person to handle them. The patient's sense of security is enhanced by the knowledge of the proximity of those who are willing to discuss with him. The physician should show that they are available for discussions with patients and patients alike.

The patient goes through the values ​​of his life as he approaches death. She is going through her relationships and doing things and not doing her. Preparing for Death is a process in which the entire living life and its meaning get the ultimate perspective. An essential part of good care is to support this process so that the patient eventually matures to face death.

Discussions must respect the patient's beliefs. The patient often raises issues as he or she is ready to deal with them, but the doctor may also be proactive. The conversation usually releases anxiety. Honest encounters and handling of emotions and unfinished business will lead to their clarification. Death is easier to face when you have been able to find out the questions that have pushed your mind and to get away from "living enough". Dealing with death is often more difficult for everyone when it comes to a child. The child's approach to death must be told very carefully. The method and timing of the report should be agreed with the parents, as well as who will tell. Parents also need special support, so they can be along with their child.

Recommendations

Talking about treatment solutions with the patient will clarify the situation and dispel the patient's fears. The patient will make sure that his / her pain is adequately treated and that his or her will is respected, for example, by refraining from the treatments and studies he considers unnecessary. The golden rule that one should do what he wants to do for himself is helpful in reflecting on the boundaries of treatment. This is based on empathy, the desire to understand the circumstances affecting another person's life and the ability to make the best for the neighbor. One can speak of empathic coexistence as a basic feature of being a physician.

It is good for the physician and the patient to have a common understanding of how the patient's quality of life is best achieved in the last stages of life. For others, the quality of life is more important than the length of life. The declarations of intent recorded by the patient clarify the making of decisions. It is important that the patient can feel involved in the end-of-life solutions. Therefore, you should use medications that blur the clarity of thought.

The doctor has different interests in cross-pressure when making treatment decisions. He meets the patient's expectations, the demands of the relatives and the health care system, and the financial interests. In care solutions, the physician should primarily work for the best of the patient. Other interests are secondary. The lack of medical staff or lack of treatment options may make it difficult for the doctor to act. In prioritization situations, solutions must be based on humane starting points that take into account the individual's psychological and social situation. The age or economic circumstances of the patient are not in themselves the primary basis for treatment. Patients should be able to rely on equal treatment as they die.(Mittelstadt & Floridi, 2016).

The following questions will be answered when deciding on treatment for a dead patient. Does the treatment that technical means continue with life benefit the patient? Is the patient conscious and aware of his / her environment? Is the patient able to interact? Is he aware of his existence? Is he able to feel pleasure? Does he have the ability to do something independent? Does the patient have an important goal for which he wants to live a little longer? If the treatment does not cure or preserve any of the abovementioned abilities, there is no reason to prolong the treatment. It is always important to maintain a safe, hopeful and trust-creating care atmosphere.

The complaints made by the relatives in the end-of-life care decisions often reveal that they have not heard their opinion or will. When dealing with complaints, there is a perception that most of these complaints would not have been made if the physician had the opportunity or the ability to discuss more thoroughly with the relatives about the treatment choices. The importance of the doctor's interaction skills is emphasized in these situations.

In this case, the doctor and the patient jointly develop a strategy and treatment methods. The doctor applies his medical experience and gives explanations regarding the prognosis of treatment, including the alternative to non-treatment; the patient, knowing his goals and values, determines the option that best suits his interests and plans for the future. If social norms do not have an ethical or legal dimension, they will have to give up in case of conflict. Instead, the conflict between legal and ethical standards is more complicated. The substantive legislation on health care and medicine (eg patient relationship legislation) often consists of ethical principles converted into legal standards, so the relationship between law and ethics in the healthcare sector is very close . The problem, then, is that there is no legally independent entity that all members agree on the correctness of the ethical system behind the legislation. Democratic laws are often the outcome of the negotiation

References

Capone, J. L. (1984). Bartling v. Superior Court: The Final Transgression of a Patient's Right to

Die. Case W. Res. L. Rev., 35, 764.

Callahan, D. (1992). When self-determination runs amok. The Hastings Center Report, 22(2),

52-55.

Kearl, M. C. (1989). Endings: A sociology of death and dying. Oxford University Press on

Demand.

Mittelstadt, B. D., & Floridi, L. (Eds.). (2016). The ethics of biomedical big data (Vol. 29).

Springer.

Writer's Choice

Bioethics: Human Life Issues

Name

Affiliation

Date

Bioethics: Human Life Issues

Ethics and ethical theories hold great importance in the field of philosophy. The basic purpose of the theories is to ensure the justification of any scenario or ensuring the betterment and well-being of the people, as well as the whole society in some cases, being affected by it. The case study of breaking the promise and lying focuses on utilizing the wrong means to achieve better goods, so the justification of the act needs to explore, keeping in view the philosophical concepts. In this paper, I will discuss the case scenario of breaking the promise and lying in the light of the philosophical theories of utilitarianism and natural law, as described by Thomas Aquinas.

In order to become able to identify different aspects of the case according to the theories of utilitarianism and natural law by Thomas Aquinas., it is quite important to explore the details of the case. So, according to the case study, Jane Rachel is unemployed at the moment, however, she is getting her unemployment compensation check. She becomes familiar with the suffering of people in African due to the drastic conditions of famine and she wants to help them, however, she does not have finds to lend her support to the needy. She asks for a loan of thousand dollars from an ex-colleague, John, on the claims that she has to pay for her rent and food expenses, as she is short on employment compensation is which actually wrong. Though she as promised to return the loan, she has no intention of doing so as she thinks that being on a permanent position and receiving the tenure, he can easily afford the amount. John lends the amount to Jane for the sake of her personal expenses, as he thinks that he was partially responsible for the loss of her job. The amount was sent to the relief fund and was utilized for providing food to the starving children in Africa.

Now considering all of these details, the utilitarianism theory will direct our attention to the aspect of the case that Jane has got the loan from John, in order to help the poor and starving kids of Africa. The utilitarianism theory focuses on ensuring the greatest good directed towards the greatest number of people. So this particular theory will focus on the point that although Jane has got the money from John by lying and then making a false promise, which is not intending to fulfill, she is doing bad to John or harming him, only for the sake of ensuring the greatest good of the African children who are starving. She wanted to do it on her own, however, cannot afford at the moment due to the loss of her job and her unemployment compensation would be only enough to meet her personal expenses. On the other hand, John is a full-time professor of philosophy who is getting the full amount of his tenure, so it only seems god that he would have enough funds and lending a thousand dollars will not cause a major setback to him, however, that thousand dollars will provide much more benefit, happiness, and satisfaction to the starving kid in Africa, as they would be able to eat to their full if not more times than at least for one time (Mill, 2016). On the other hand, the natural law theory bay Thomas Aquinas will draw our attention to the aspect that Jane is practically stealing from John which hinders the harmonious functioning of the society, therefore should be avoided. In addition to it, Jane has lied to John that she has run out of the unemployment compensation when she is actually still getting it. Moreover, she has also made a false promise to him that she will return the amount once she gets employed, while she has no intention of doing so, to begin with. She thinks that John has enough money to donate to the cause. She has not asked his opinion on the stance or asked about his financial condition and just made the decision on her own and enacted it as well, while John is unaware of the whole scenario and just lend the money to her, due to his guilt of being responsible for the discontinuation of her job (Aquinas, 1945).

The theories of philosophy do not just highlight the concerning aspects of the scenarios, but also provide the suggestions for the solution of the ethical dilemma discussed in the scenario. In order to explore the suggestions for the resolution of the ethical dilemma, it is quite important to explore what is an ethical dilemma. So, an ethical dilemma is the situation or the point of the conflict between two moral imperatives and supporting one would harm the other and vice versa. So, keeping in view the ethical dilemma presented in the case scenario of breaking a promise and lying, the utilitarianism theory would suggest the solution that Jane has done the right thing of taking the money from John and sending it to the relief fund for the starving kids of Africa, which would then be utilized for the said purpose. The basic claim of the utilitarianism theory is providing the greatest good to the most number of people. It implies that in the situation of ethical dilemmas, a person can harm few or lesser numbers of people in order to ensure the safety and betterment of most number of people. In this particular scenario, the ethical dilemma is between practically robbing John of the thousand dollars, and providing the amount to the relief fund which would use it for feeding the starving kids Africa. Following the suggested solution of the utilitarianism theory, it is better to steal from John and instead of ignoring the needs of the starving kids of Africa, who may have not eaten anything for a few days. The children may have been on the brink of death and even a single meal could save their lives. Jane will be providing the greatest good to the most number of children in famine-stricken Africa by providing the funds to them by getting the amount from John after making a false promise with him. On the other hand, the loss of the thousand dollars will not put the life of John on stake, as he is full-time professor, who is getting his tenure and can afford the basic necessities of life, even if he does not get the thousand dollars back from Jane (Mill, 2016).

On the other hand, the natural law theory by Thomas Aquinas will suggest a different solution to the ethical dilemma discussed in the case scenario. According to the natural law theory, there are two sides to the ethical dilemma. One focuses on the apparent good present in the scenario, while the other focuses on the harmonious functioning of the society. According to the first point, a person can pursue the bad even if there is an apparent good in it. According to this particular point, Jane has done the good thing by breaking the promise and lying to John and taking the thousand dollars for sending the aid to the starving kids in Africa. It is justified and good act because she has only done wrong to John to achieve the apparent good of saving the African kids from starvation. According to the other point suggested by the natural law theory, the harmonious working of the society should be ensured which means that any evil should not be practiced or promoted in society. From this perspective, the suggested solution of the ethical dilemma discussed in the case scenario is that Jane has not done the right thing by breaking the promise, as well as lying to John, because she is promoting such practice in the society. Although her motive was justifiable as she just wanted to help the poor children in need, her mean that is taking the amount from John by lying about her needs and making the false promise of returning the amount when she has no such intention is disturbing the harmonious functioning of the society. She has lied to John for ensuring the betterment of the poor kids of Africa, however, her actions are only supporting the notion that it is acceptable to steal from people and deceive them in order to serve the poor communities of the world. So., the suggested solution of the ethical dilemma according to the natural law theory is that Jane should not break her promise and lie to John as it is not justifiable (Aquinas, 1945).

According to my opinion, the resolution provided by the natural law theory that Jane should not break the promise and lie to John is the best. The reason for supporting this resolution is that breaking the promise, lying, and robbing someone from his rightful property or amount is not justified if it is being used for tending to the needs of the poor communities of the world. It is wrong and unjustified on the grounds that if all the people or even e a few start doing this, it will disturb the working of the society as the people would not be able to trust anyone and would not lend support even to those people who genuinely need it. Jane could have cut short her expenses or worked hard to get employment so she could support the cause on her own. On the other hand, even if she considered that John had enough money and he could spare a thousand dollars easily in order to support the cause, she could have talked directly to him and asked about his stance for supporting the poor and starving kids of Africa. It only depended on him to support or not support the cause. Even if he did not support the cause, he was not committing any crime or doing something unethical. However, Jane has done an unethical act by deceiving John to pay her the amount, which she did not need for her personal expense but for the sake of charity. Using the amount for helping the poor community is also not a greater issue but the major problem is that she has unethically taken the amount from John, who has to lend her the money due to this guilt for the loss of her job. The most unethical thing in the whole scenario is that Jane is not intending to pay back the amount to John even if she gets the job and has enough money to pay him back. This is the main reason that supports the resolution provided by the natural law theory, which states that the practice is wrong on the ground that it will disturb the harmonious working of the society.

The case scenario of breaking the promise and lying highlights the ethical dilemma of supporting the starving kids of Africa, by getting a thousand dollars from a person by deceiving him. The utilitarianism theory supports the notion that providing little harm to few people is acceptable to ensure the greatest good of the greatest number of the people, while the natural law theory states that the harmonious working of the society should not be disturbed. I support the resolution of the natural law theory that Jane should not break the promise and lie to John as she is promoting the wrong means of doing well by such an act.

References

Aquinas, T. (1945). Concerning the nature of law (from summa theologica).

Mill, J. S. (2016). Utilitarianism. In Seven masterpieces of philosophy (pp. 337-383). Routledge.

Writer's Decision

Brain Death and Organ Transplantation

Your Name

University

Date

Brain Death and Organ Transplantation

Q3. a Discuss the connection between brain death and organ transplantation with specific references to the Baby Wingrove case?

Organ transplantation in modern society has become a daily occurrence. Both her positive and negative evaluations emanating from various church or theological circles are usually not systematic. The Orthodox Church has not yet expressed its position on this issue. This position should not be the opinion of its individual representatives or commissions that adhere to traditional views but should be an expression of its collective conscience.

The task of bioethics is to consider the phenomenon of human death as a biosocial system included in the system of sociocultural relations of society. Bioethical analysis involves consideration of other points of view that exist within the theological, philosophical, psychological, esoteric and other approaches.

Currently, medicine distinguishes between clinical and biological death. The main sign of biological death is brain death. Biological death is characterized by the complete and irreversible disappearance of the functions of the brain and all organs. Clinical death is characterized by: respiratory arrest, circulatory arrest, artificial maintenance of blood flow and ventilation of the lungs, preserving the functions of the central nervous system.

With a theological understanding of the life and death of a person, the soul and body become the basic concepts. The physical body is mortal, subject to destruction, the soul is immortal. In all world religions, biological death is understood as a transition from one form of life (earthly) to another of its form — the life of the soul in another, extraterrestrial area of ​​the universe.

The third position in the understanding of the phenomenon of death is a combination of scientific and religious ideas, based on the data of modern psychophysiological studies of brain activity, psychological studies by representatives of transpersonal psychology, etc.

The vegetative state may arise as a result of brain injury, may be partially or fully recoverable, or, conversely, may progress to a permanent vegetative state or death of the patient. Patients in PVS are not viewed as dead; they have higher brain death, but recall brain-stem function and are not, consequently, predictable as dead by the US (entire brain) or UK (brain stem) conditions. In the case of PVS, life-support is the providing of nutrition and fluids (Hoffenberg, Lock, Tilney, Casabona, Daar, Guttmann & Sells, 1997)

In baby Wingrove case, couple found that their expected baby is suffering from anencephaly at 30th week of gestation. Children born with a similar defect have a developed body and a deformed skull and head tissue. The brain is so not developed that the treatment does not make sense. If in the mother's body the fetus develops normally, then at birth the brain cannot perform its functions. Some reflexes are present, but the body cannot function, and the child dies for 3-4 days of life. In some cases, there is a combination of anencephaly and other malformations. Doctor want couple to terminate pregnancy but mother want to donate organs of her fetus so any other baby may get benefit from them.

Organ transplantation has also uncovered emotionally charged Symbolic and anthropomorphic meanings that we attach to our bodies and their parts. What is psychologically and interpersonally involved in receiving the organs of a donor into one's body has brought closer to the surface the qualities of mind, personality, character, spirit, and soul that we identify with our corporeal selves. (fox ,1996, p.257). According to him, reliable information confirming the death of the brain is analogous to the death of a person, this state is considered as the death of the whole organism, regardless of the fact that the functions of some organs still remain.

Brain death is a state of death of the cells of the cerebral cortex, which are responsible for the function of consciousness, memory, function, for higher nervous activity. This does not apply to brain cells that are responsible for the body's autonomic functions: respiration, cardiac activity. According to Hoffenberg, Lock, Tilney, Casabona, Daar, Guttmann & Sells (1997) patients with whole-brain or brain-stem death are deemed in law to be dead. A vegetative state is a conscious state (waking state), with no response to oneself or to the world around. In this state, motor reflex movements and autonomic functions, such as breathing, heartbeat and maintaining body temperature, remain.

B) How Would a Kantian approach this case? A utilitarian?

Organ transplantation technology brings legal and ethical challenges while bringing the gospel to human society. The transplant organs currently available are far from meeting the needs of patients. How to expand the supply of organs is a common problem faced by governments. Determining the principle of donation and the scope of donation are the basis for solving this problem and the most intense focus of debate. According to this view, Kant's ethics and critics believe that living organ transplantation is not only the responsibility of killing a person, but also involves taking away an organ in a person's body. Hoffenberg, Lock, Tilney, Casabona, Daar, Guttmann & Sells (1997) article explores the ethical, legal and social issues of expanding the source of transplanted organs and proposes policy recommendations for expanding the source of transplanted organs. It is believed that the source of transplanted organs should adhere to the principle of voluntary donation, strictly limit the scope of donation of living organs, and establish A fair organ distribution system and a reasonable donation incentive system, improve the identification of death standards, and encourage living donors between relatives. All forms of organ resection that Kant explicitly prohibits, that is, simple capture or "cut" of the organic component, self-protection instinct is only an organic component of the body. The removal of organs from the body to save people is an allowed exception. In Kant's work, he also said that if the removal of organs would be fatal, then the removal is understandable. Therefore, Kant allows the removal of sick organs to protect a person's life.

Kant believes that organ transplants and donations that violate human nature include behaviors such as injury, injury and killing of someone, destruction of one's personal dignity or personality, and the use of organs for sale and profit. These are the conditions for Kant to oppose the donation of living organs. These purposes are obviously not the purpose of some donors nowadays. Most people who are willing to donate organs are acting for the purpose of benevolence and salvation. This kind of donation is a goal of not protecting themselves but protecting others. Organ donation needs to be considered to match the real needs of others. In this case, if the organ recipient does not receive a donation (such as the kidney), life will be in danger and even face death. A non-fatal organ donation like a kidney donation can save a life without jeopardizing the life of the donor. I believe that even Kant supports it.

According to the above, scholars have proved that 1 ) the destruction or partial self-murder in Kant's concept refers to the practice within the scope of his prohibition; 2 ) Kant does not prohibit all organ donation against the obligation of self-protection.

If the following two conditions are met, the donated organ will hardly be considered to be damaged or violate the self-protection obligation: 1) Donated organs and related surgical procedures will not pose serious risks (physical disability and death) to the donor ; 2 ) People who donate organs do not have moral personality risks

This defense of human dignity dates back to the great philosopher Kant in the 18th century. In the age of Kant, there was no kidney trade, but there were teeth sales. Kant believes that this sale of teeth infringes upon the dignity of the human being and turns his own material into goods and objects (objects) as a profit tool. As his famous saying goes: "We should not regard people as tools, but as purposes. The moral law of the thinker according to Kant: "Act so that the maxim of your will could be a universal law. If simplified, it is almost equal to the principle “treat people the way you want them to treat you. So, to some extent, Kant returns to the "golden rule of morality.

Kant’s statement may be inspiring, but if one asks deeper, the morality of materialization is not easy to say clearly. Why is it that trafficking in labor does not treat oneself as an object, infringing on the dignity of the human person, and only selling organs? People who question Kant often mention this point of view. We routinely sell our bodies, we use our own bodies to work, and this is also to use our own body as a tool. Is labor also wrong and should be banned?

c) Do you agree with Mr. or Mrs. Wingrove in this case? why?

I am agreeing with Mrs. Wingrove because it is a good act to help other and in this case child is confirmed declared as anencephaly and baby girl cannot survive more than few days so if her organs will be donated to other babies and in this way may be some other babies can survive. It is morally good act. However, there is just an issue od consent to donate organs but her mother is willing to donate her organs and it is justified.

Like other biomedical technologies, organ transplants bring ethical dilemmas to human health and challenge legal and social policies. Here we need to explore the ethical, legal and social issues brought about by organ transplantation, examine the legal provisions of organ transplantation and the moral declinability of social policies, and consider the challenges faced by bioethics principles in organ donation practice. The two controversial points responded and, on this basis, proposed policy recommendations to expand the source of organ transplants.

In organ donation, the important challenge of respecting the principle of autonomy is the impact of society, economy and culture on the exercise of autonomy by individuals. For example, people who are extremely poor will donate their organs for economic reasons; some young people will even give up their organs because they are catching up with fashion (such as buying an electronic product). In their view, this is a rational choice. In clinical practice, although the informed consent procedure has become a prerequisite for organ donation, there are still some medical staff who deliberately exaggerate the success rate of transplants and conceal possible risks in order to gain more organs. The consent of the death penalty to death under extremely special conditions is widely criticized. It can be seen that respecting autonomy is a necessary condition for guaranteeing the safety and dignity of life, and it is not a sufficient condition. In order to ensure the rationality of the source of transplanted organs in terms of moral, cultural and social benefits, additional restrictions on organ donation are needed to reduce the potential risks posed by voluntary principles.

References

Fox, R. C. (1996). Afterthoughts: Continuing reflections on organ transplantation. Organ

transplantation: Meanings and realities, 252-72.

Hoffenberg, R., Lock, M., Tilney, N., Casabona, C., Daar, A. S., Guttmann, R. D., ... & Sells, R.

A. (1997). Should organs from patients in permanent vegetative state be used for transplantation? The Lancet, 350(9087), 1320-1321.

Writing 3

Your Name

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Writing 3

Introduction

Human being is the most perfect creation ever created. They have been blessed with the various bounties including wisdom, ability to think, ability to analyze and the power to make decisions according to their own will. Human beings have certain basic rights that they require in order to make the most out of their lives and live a happy and healthy life. These rights include the right to breathe, the right to survive, right to eat, and also right to eat good and healthy food, right to safety and protection. All these rights make sure that a person is leading a happy, healthy and safe life.

Just like the rights of humans are important and are protected people, the rights of animals are also protected by some parties. After all, animals are the species that live with us and share the same planet, with us humans. The debate for animal rights is not new; in fact, it has been going on since ages (Vaughn). Experts, philosophers, scientists, sociologists and even psychologists have extensively taken part in this debate and presented their arguments. One side of the debate argues the animals have been created for the facilitation of human beings, hence there should be no issue in eating them as a meal or testing products on them. On the other hand, the other side of the debate argues that it is completely immoral and unethical to kill animals for the purposes of food or testing.

A number of experts, philosophers and scholars have presented their views in the form of publications at different fronts. One of the most prominent names among them is Peter Singer. Peter Singer is a famous philosopher from Australia who is a supporter of animal rights as well as utilitarians. The well-known philosopher specialized in applied ethics and views various issues form a utilitarianist lens. Regarding his views about animal rights, he presented his views in one of his most popular works of publications “Animal Liberation”. The book was published in 1975 and greatly disseminated messgaes of ethics, morality and philosophy. Singer also wrote an article about animal rights in 2008, by the name “All Animals Are Equal”.

Discussion

Peter Singer

The famous article “All Animals are Equal”, by well-known philosopher Peter Singer, throws light on the equality of rights of the animals. Singer is of the view that animals should be given equal rights, just like human beings, on the grounds that they are also living beings. Singer holds the views that animals should be granted the same rights just like all humans, who are also considered living beings (Singer). The philosopher holds the view that the decision of not extending the rights on an equal level, is inconsistent. Singer was also of the opinion that the rights of animals should be respected in the same manner just like the rights of humans are respects and protected.

Carl Cohen

Carl Cohen is one of the other philosophers, who has received great acclaim in the area of philosophy due to his great contributions in the area. He is currently a professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Cohen is also a great supporter of animal rights. However, he views the case of animal rights from a different aspect. Cohen has focused his work on the testing and experimentation on animals. He argues that testing of cosmetics and various chemicals on the animals is completely immoral and unethical. Cohen was extremely against the testing of various medicines, drugs and makeup products on the animals and raised his voice over multiple platforms against this. He also received great criticism over this that he seems to care more about animals and less about humans or human rights. Still, the philosopher never stopped and held his opinion high. The logic that he presented was that animals also feel pain just like human beings, as they are also living things.

Personal Opinions

Personally, I am also a great supporter of animal rights myself. I agree with the argument present by both Peter Singer and Carl Cohen. I believe that animals are not food items or prototypes for tests. They should not be killed for eating purposes and the testing of chemicals, various make-up products and medicines should be immediately banned all over the world. In fact, any sich person or company who indulges in such a heinous act should be blacklisted and fined as well.

Conclusion

In short, the main argument present by Peter Singer in his article “All the Animals are Equal” is the equality of rights for the animals. The philosopher wants to make a point that animals should be treated just like human beings; breathing and alive, they should be considered living beings and should have equal rights, just like a normal human being. The basis of this argument was not an equal comparison but the equal feelings and emotions that a living thing feels. Singer was joined by one of his fellows in the same research area, philosophy. His name is Carl Cohen and he is also a big supporter of human rights. Cohen focused his work mostly on animal testing and experimentation on animals. He strongly objected against experiments on animals and demanded that it should be banned on an immediate basis. Despite receiving great criticism, both the philosophers stayed firm on their point and got the material published at various platforms.

Works Cited:

Singer, Peter. "All animals are equal." Animal Rights. Routledge, 2017. 3-16.

Vaughn, Lewis. Doing ethics: Moral reasoning and contemporary issues. WW Norton & Company, 2015.

Writing 3

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Writing 3

Introduction

Animal rights have always been a topic of debate, for a long time. Experts, scholars, philosophers, sociologists and even psychologists have been debating over the issue and have presented their arguments. Both the sides, i.e., speaking in favor of animal rights and speaking against animal rights, have always given multiple and strong arguments to support their point of view. Some of them think that as animals are not humans, and have been created for the purposed of entertainment and use of humans, they should be utilized in the maximum possible manner (Vaughn). On the other side, the argument is that no matter if animals are humans or not, they also deserve to live their life independently and deserve to have same rights just like any other living being.

One of the most prominent advocates of this school of thought, is Peter Singer. Peter Albert David Singer is a well-known moral philosopher and a big supporter of utilitarianism from Australia. He is a specialist in applied ethics and addresses the issues from a utilitarian point of view. Singer is especially famous for his work and views that he presented in his most famous book “Animal Liberation” published in 1975. Out of the multiple articles published by Singer, on the topics of ethics, morality, and philosophy, one of the articles that got much fame and popularity is the one penned down by the philosopher by the title “All Animals Are Equal”, in 2008.

Discussion

Summary of the Article

Peter Singer in his article “All Animals are Equal”, argues that all animals should be given equal rights and should be respected in the same manner as humans are. Singer argues that equal rights are a concept not based on equality, but actually on equal consideration.

Views of the Philosopher about the Animal Rights

Singer holds the views that animals should be granted the same rights just like all humans, who are also considered living beings (Singer). The philosopher holds the view that the decision of not extending the rights on an equal level, is inconsistent.

Use of Utilitarian Theory by the Philosopher to Prove That Animal Interests Also Matter

The concept of utilitarianism explains that the concept of right or wrong is based upon the outcomes of those actions. Singer supports the notion to a great extent that the animal’s interests should matter to everyone, because they are living beings as well. They feel pain as well and are sensitive to physical pain and injuries.

Personal Opinion about the Views Present

I personally think that Peter Singer is absolutely right. His views about the animal rights are completely logical and hold great weight. These arguments are based upon the years of research, plus experimentation and hold great value in the circles of philosophy.

Personal Opinion about the Morality of Eating Meat

I personally think that animals are not food items and they look good in jungles or their natural habitats, instead of on plates.

Personal Opinion about the Morality of Experimenting on animals

As I am a big advocate of animal rights, I also agree on the point that animals are not items for experimentation.

Views of Carl Cohen about the Rights of Animals

Carl Cohen, another professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor, Michigan, also argues about the rights of animals. He mainly focuses on experimenting and testing of various products on the animals.

Objections to Cohen’s Arguments

Multiple authors and philosophers argued that Carl Cohen has provided very “kind” words in favor of the animals, but they prove to be too harsh for humans. Cohen seems to advocate the rights of the animals, but looks like he is shunning or denying the rights of the humans.

Response of Cohen to these Objections

Cohen provides a response to all these objections and counter-arguments in a cool and calm manner. He still sticks to his point and states that animals are not objects of testing. It inflicts pain upon them and hurts them as well, just like it hurts human beings.

Personal Opinion about the Views Presented By Carl Cohan

Just like I agree with the views presented by Peter Singer, I also agree with the viewpoint of Carl Cohen. I completely agree that animals are not a test object and no chemicals or cosmetics should be tested on the animals, as it may be a cause of pain for them.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, it can be concluded that Peter Singer, a great philosopher and one of the most noted utilitarianists, is also one of the biggest advocates of animal rights. He has strong arguments that animals should be given equal rights just like human beings, but not on the basis of equal comparison. Animals should be considered as equally, breathing and living beings just like human beings. All his views have been presented in his famous article “All Animals Are Equal” published in 2008, as mentioned earlier. Moreover, another philosopher, Carl Cohen, is also a big advocate of animal rights. He suggests that chemicals should not be tested on animals as it inflicts pain on them and hurts them, in the same manner as it would hurt humans. Both the philosophers received great criticism as well, but they remained solid on their points and shunned all the criticism.

Works Cited:

Vaughn, Lewis. Doing ethics: Moral reasoning and contemporary issues. WW Norton & Company, 2015.

Singer, Peter. "All animals are equal." Animal Rights. Routledge, 2017. 3-16.

Writing Assignment

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Title: Writing Assignment

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a moral theory which states that your actions are right if they promote happiness and wrong if they produce unhappiness. Happiness is the pleasure and absence of pain. Anything that scores ones’ motives, goals, virtue are considered as part of happiness. Stuart Mill argues that this theory overlaps the natural sentiments that come out of social nature of humans. So, if utilitarianism is considered as an ethical theory, humans should implement these standards in their lives as components of morality. And the sole basis of morality is happiness and every action should bring pleasure. He suggests that all the elements of people’s desires are meant to bring happiness. He also believes that the concept of justice is based on utility because human rights are made to provide happiness. But this theory has been strongly criticized on the basis that not every person’s standards of happiness are similar and it is a more complex mater than it is thought to be or even imitated by the theory of utilitarianism. Mill argues that happiness is the foundation of justice and there is a strong association between justice and utility.

Kantian Ethics

All rational beings are subject to morality and morality is defined as making choices based on reasons rather than sensual impulses. Emmanuel Kant’s theory suggests that every moral action is reasoned and determined by what drives those actions and not the consequences. The worth of any moral action can be determined by reasoning its motive if it can be applied as a universal maxim. Morality should be a universal for all human beings because the reason is same for all people at all the time. So, an action can only be termed as moral if it symbolizes sound reasoning and maxim can be applied as a universal law. We should all act according to this maxim that can be approved universally and Kant called it as a “categorical imperative”. He contrasts this phenomenon with “hypothetical imperative” in which people perform a certain action with a motive to achieve intended results. Kant argues that there are no ifs to determine the morality of any action. Morality is a categorical imperative where the motive of an action should be admirable but the consequences shouldn’t be calculated. A moral law is universal law meaning it is applied on all people equally. But acting morally requires that all other people are treated as moral agents and our actions must not prevent any other person to act morally. Kant believes that an ideally moral society is a kingdom of ends where people themselves are the authors and the subjects of moral laws. Morality is based on autonomous will even if we have to follow the universal laws because we ourselves submit to them upon rational reflection. He also explains the intricate question of free will. He says that laws of physics are only applicable to the world of appearances while will is a thing-in-itself phenomenon of which we know nothing about. Either the will is free or imposed, we still act according to the notion of freedom. We act as if we think we have an autonomous will and we are not accountable of our actions. Our autonomous will acts according to the laws dictated by our own reasoning. Kant has explained the science of will by a saying; “The will is conceived as a faculty of determining oneself to action in accordance with the conception of certain laws. And such a faculty can be found only in rational beings.”

Greatest happiness principle and categorical imperative

The theory of utilitarianism is based on the “greatest happiness principle” which suggests that actions can only be termed as moral if they promote happiness and utility and immoral if they don’t. It also includes the utility of the general public and their happiness overall. But logically any action that ensures utility cannot be implied s a moral action. An action to be called as moral must be an optimal choice for increasing utility and minimizing the pain from the society. Utilitarianism states the basis of greatest happiness principle. It considers good as happiness and right deeds that maximize the happiness and minimize the pain. Mill explains in his essay;

The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure.

But there is a strong criticism on greatest happiness principle of utilitarianism theory that the future cannot be foreseen and the consequences of any action cannot be perceived. The malignant actions taken for increasing the utility in a society that causes harm to others and defies the universal laws of mortality cannot be justified ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"n1VQGXXG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Vaughn)","plainCitation":"(Vaughn)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":223,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/3FSSZKAS"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/3FSSZKAS"],"itemData":{"id":223,"type":"article-journal","title":"Contemporary Moral Arguments: Readings in Ethical Issues","author":[{"family":"Vaughn","given":"Lewis"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Vaughn).

Summarization about driverless cars

The concept of utilitarianism approach for the driverless cars evaluates any mode of action based on the degree of utility it will have on the people involved in that particular setting. This approach is useful in a way that the consequences of an action can be calculating while making any decision. The cars if designed to put the concept of utility ahead of everything, will only take actions that will ensure goodwill of the driver. This means that applying this theory in cars will improve the safety of the drivers. But at the same time, the safety of the pedestrians or fellow drivers or riders can be compromised. Cars don’t process like humans minds but rather have an instilled program that was designed at the manufacturing time ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2OFxlj4H","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bogle)","plainCitation":"(Bogle)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":224,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/V9AXJAUB"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/V9AXJAUB"],"itemData":{"id":224,"type":"webpage","title":"5 big ethical questions about driverless cars we still need answered","container-title":"ABC News","genre":"Current","abstract":"Can we trust driverless cars to make the right choice on the road?","URL":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2018-03-21/self-driving-autonomous-cars-five-ethical-questions/9567986","language":"en_AU","author":[{"family":"Bogle","given":"Ariel"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",3,21]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,25]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bogle). The deontology approach on the other hand will ensure the maximizing the utility of a certain action. It prioritizes the ethical and moral values and avoids making any decisions that can cause harm anyone else no matter what. These cars should be designed in such a way that they should protect both the driver and the ones outside the car. It can be instilled by making a program to make the cars able to communicate with each other to save road accidents. For the safety of the pedestrians, the cars are required to be designed such that it ensures the maximum utility. Decisions is such crucial situations where the safety of the driver or others are compromised are very hard and it an ethical dilemma. When humans design the programs for these cars, they need to apply all moral actions based on reasons rather than only on sensual basis. There might be so many other situations that cannot be taken in consideration while programming that actually occur on the road ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"bhvFa28P","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Smith)","plainCitation":"(Smith)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":226,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/GXQPYHUV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/GXQPYHUV"],"itemData":{"id":226,"type":"webpage","title":"A Huge Global Study On Driverless Car Ethics Found The Elderly Are Expendable","container-title":"Forbes","abstract":"MIT's Moral Machine study is the largest ethics survey ever conducted, with 4 million people giving their views on the moral and ethical decisions that autonomous vehicles will make on the roads. The results highlight just how there's no clear-cut answer when it comes to making moral machines.","URL":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliversmith/2018/03/21/the-results-of-the-biggest-global-study-on-driverless-car-ethics-are-in/","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Smith","given":"Oliver"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,25]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Smith). Sometimes the drivers themselves want to sacrifice their lives and save other people. But the action on field is entirely based on the fixed course of action. I believe I have more Kantian approach in the matter of driverless cars because according to it the only moral decision will be based on reasoning to bring about the goodness. Moral actions based on this will be categorically imperative and there would not be any ifs in making a choice. Rather the decision will entirely be based on reasons. It will be a universally accepted moral law and all the people will be obliged to follow it. This way, every driverless car will be programmed to make decisions similarly and thus improve the road safety for both the drivers and pedestrians.

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bogle, Ariel. “5 Big Ethical Questions about Driverless Cars We Still Need Answered.” ABC News, 21 Mar. 2018, https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2018-03-21/self-driving-autonomous-cars-five-ethical-questions/9567986.

Smith, Oliver. “A Huge Global Study On Driverless Car Ethics Found The Elderly Are Expendable.” Forbes, https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliversmith/2018/03/21/the-results-of-the-biggest-global-study-on-driverless-car-ethics-are-in/. Accessed 25 Sept. 2019.

Vaughn, Lewis. Contemporary Moral Arguments: Readings in Ethical Issues. 2009.

Writing Assignment 2

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Philosophy

October 22nd, 2019.

Writing Assignment 2

Death penalty or capital punishment is a deliberate act of taking someone’s life who is convicted of life threatening offenses. From a state to state, the underlying causes of capital punishment stands different and leads to this deliberate act. The Consequentialist school in philosophy suggests that capital punishment remains synonym to inflicting the hard treatment by a state or state nominated authority for previous misconduct. For the consequentialist, the death penalty remains a conventional process that goes according to the resentment and the anger, which the accused has inflicted over someone else ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yMc2JkSk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jackson and Jackson)","plainCitation":"(Jackson and Jackson)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":755,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/F6CKYQ2C"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/F6CKYQ2C"],"itemData":{"id":755,"type":"book","title":"Legal lynching: Racism, injustice, and the death penalty","publisher":"Marlowe & Company","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Legal lynching","author":[{"family":"Jackson","given":"Jesse"},{"family":"Jackson","given":"Jesse"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1996"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jackson and Jackson). They argue that since those who conduct actions which widely remains at a clash with the regulations offered by the states or with the general norms of the society, consequently, they deserve nothing more than death. They also argue about the death penalty in line with the “expressive theory about punishment (Jackson and Jackson)." The expressive theory of punishments addresses the underlying reasons for death penalties; therefore, many consequentialists cite the very same theory when referring to their ideas.

For deontologists, however, choices are morally required, prior to deciding about the fate of life and death of anyone. As deontology falls in the domain of moral framework, therefore, those belonging to the class of philosophy, cite the moral factors as the guiding element in their decisions about the death penalty as well. With reference to such rules of deontology in philosophy, the reference to such rules or the character traits is made in line with morals largely accepted by society. For many deontologists like Cassel, the morals should guide about the fate of anyone. The larger the wrong accusations are devoted with a self of anyone, the larger should be the punishment. Capital punishment is that’s how the ultimate consequence left.

Kant’s view about the death penalty is largely attributed to Kant’s passionate sermons. For Kant, capital punishment remains one of the primary punishment at the state’s prerogative ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"D6wrXeou","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Swabey)","plainCitation":"(Swabey)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":757,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5YEKLZRY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5YEKLZRY"],"itemData":{"id":757,"type":"book","title":"Ethical theory: from Hobbes to Kant","publisher":"Philosophical Library","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Ethical theory","author":[{"family":"Swabey","given":"William Curtis"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1961"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Swabey). Though he attributes capital punishment with the proved offense, however at many instances, he had been so stringent about his insistence. His such beliefs about capital punishment make the readers as philosophically suspect. For the reason of his much emphasis on capital punishment, the critics of him believe that his view of capital punishment is largely inconsistent with the fundamental tenets of morals and legal philosophy. Kant justifies his arguments about capital punishment based on the notion that essentially one among the two strategies is required to deny the execution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vBrrqmBL","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Swabey)","plainCitation":"(Swabey)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":757,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5YEKLZRY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5YEKLZRY"],"itemData":{"id":757,"type":"book","title":"Ethical theory: from Hobbes to Kant","publisher":"Philosophical Library","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Ethical theory","author":[{"family":"Swabey","given":"William Curtis"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1961"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Swabey). The first remains denial by retribution, whereas the second is inviolable moral principles. These inviolable moral principles argue that the death penalty remains immoral and illegitimate. For his critics, such values appeal to the morals and values of human dignity and their right to life.

There are many reasons; one can disagree with Kant's view of moral philosophy. For example, his firmness on the notion that the death penalty stands at no difference with the morals of human dignity does not conform to the present-day laws ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vCc4rqfc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Swabey)","plainCitation":"(Swabey)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":757,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5YEKLZRY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/5YEKLZRY"],"itemData":{"id":757,"type":"book","title":"Ethical theory: from Hobbes to Kant","publisher":"Philosophical Library","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Ethical theory","author":[{"family":"Swabey","given":"William Curtis"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1961"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Swabey). Kant’s justification of his narrative about capital punishment appears –a kind of- outdated and vague concerning the legal systems in place today. It remains on the prerogative of the modern-day scholars to interpret Kant’s view about capital punishment so as to synchronize it with the modern jurisprudence at a place in our society.

Different from Kant, Paul Cassel and Bryan Stevenson have different views on death punishment. Cassel’s view remains that capital punishment must be referred to as a deterrent. This deterrent helps to limit the bad instances in society. If one who has committed murder or any such offense is held liable for his actions, the society generally and the states specifically can bring this deterrent in place to limit any such future incidence ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xV8Jy0mk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Von Drehle)","plainCitation":"(Von Drehle)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":756,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/URLYCUB7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/URLYCUB7"],"itemData":{"id":756,"type":"book","title":"Among the lowest of the dead: The culture of death row","publisher":"Crown","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Among the lowest of the dead","author":[{"family":"Von Drehle","given":"Dave"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Von Drehle). For example, if a person has killed anyone, he may in the future can become a source of taking another’s life. To curb such incidences in the future, it remains better to hold him accountable for his actions at the very first attempt ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UybQfrYD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Von Drehle)","plainCitation":"(Von Drehle)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":756,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/URLYCUB7"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/URLYCUB7"],"itemData":{"id":756,"type":"book","title":"Among the lowest of the dead: The culture of death row","publisher":"Crown","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Among the lowest of the dead","author":[{"family":"Von Drehle","given":"Dave"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Von Drehle).

Bryan Stevenson, however, opposes the death sentence for the people who are considered as minors. He had been so vocal about the death sentence of these minors and people who have been involved in minor crimes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4LK3GEnY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stevenson)","plainCitation":"(Stevenson)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":758,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FZSMH3JL"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/s8f0QVnP/items/FZSMH3JL"],"itemData":{"id":758,"type":"book","title":"Just mercy: A story of justice and redemption","publisher":"Spiegel & Grau","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Just mercy","author":[{"family":"Stevenson","given":"Bryan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Stevenson). He believes that the United States' constitutional structure is different from many others and holds swerve consequences for the acts, which otherwise not result in the death will sentence in any other country. The best example to illustrate his point of view remains his opposition to capital punishment for those under the age of 18. In many of his publications, he has also referred toward banning capital punishment throughout the U.S. He advocates the notion that minors and adults, can be brought into social mainstream through the efforts in bettering their social circumstances.

There exist different structural problems and administrative objections about the way death penalty is implanted in America. The legal system in America remains too pelted. For outside, it is difficult to analyze the pretexts and the reasons which are developed for holding someone accountable for the death penalty. The first and the foremost objection, one may make to the administrative hurdles is removing this impediment. There can be other ways such as making the proceedings public before executing someone, so as the larger public becomes aware of the circumstances which lead to the death penalty.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Jackson, Jesse, and Jesse Jackson. Legal Lynching: Racism, Injustice, and the Death Penalty. Marlowe & Company, 1996.

Stevenson, Bryan. Just Mercy: A Story of Justice and Redemption. Spiegel & Grau, 2015.

Swabey, William Curtis. Ethical Theory: From Hobbes to Kant. Philosophical Library, 1961.

Von Drehle, Dave. Among the Lowest of the Dead: The Culture of Death Row. Crown, 1995.