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Effects of acid rain on plants, animals and marine life

Summary

This paper is aimed at exploring and explaining the underlying mechanisms behind acid rain and its potential effects on terrestrial and marine life. Acid rain, as the name indicates, is the mixture of acids and rain water that put adverse effects on the animal, plant and aquatic life existing in the ponds, lakes and marines. In the end, conclusion section will attempt to deduce meaningful inferences from the textual activity after contemplated analysis.

Main body

Acid rain, what is it?

Acid deposition or acid rain is referred to as a broader term that encapsulates any form of contamination or precipitation of water with the acidic components i.e., sulfuric acid or nitric acid that fall on the land in form of snow, hail, fog and rain (EPA, 2018).

As far as acidity of any substance is concerned, it is the tendency of a chemical substance to accept hydrogen ions and form H3O+ ions in the water. More a substance possesses this tendency, more it will be acidic in nature (Lefohn and Brocksen 2003). Acidity of any substance is measured using pH scale in which neutral substance fall at the 7th reading of pH scale. Substances possessing pH values lower than 7 are termed as acids whereas basic substances have greater pH values than 7. Normal rain water has about 5.7 pH value which indicates that it is slightly acidic in nature however pH of acidic rain falls between 4.3 and 4.5.

The Long Term Monitoring Network (LTM) of United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is aimed at measuring the chemistry in terms of acidity and alkalinity of surface water at over 280 sites. After careful experimentation, this department provides valuable and authentic information about how water bodies respond and cope with the altered pH of pond, lake, river or marine water (EPA, 2018).

How does acidic rain form?

Some industries e.g., coal power generation industries eject nitrogen and sulfur oxide as the waste products. These gases are mixed with atmospheric oxygen forming sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) that are then taken to the clouds through wind pressure and air currents. After mixing with water droplets of the clouds, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide produce their prospective acids i.e., sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) (Abrahamsen, 1987). This water then falls on the ground in form of acid rain and alters the pH of soil and water.

The major sources of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide are fossil fuels, their burning for power generation, vehicle smoke, refineries and other manufacturing industries. It is interesting to note that acid rain not only affects the areas from where its precipitating components are generated but to the distant populations as well i.e., animals, plants and water resources far from the industrial areas (EPA, 2018).

How does acid rain affect ecosystem?

Ecosystem is referred to as a community of animals, plants and other biotic and a-biotic factors of the environment including soil, air and water (EPA, 2018). In other words, all the living and non-living entities are dependent on each other and imbalance in one factor directly affects the other ones (Abrahamsen, 1987). Hence, acidic rain affects ecosystem in many ways i.e., fish and wildlife, plants and trees and human health. These factors will be discussed one by one as follows:

1. Effects of Acid Rain on Fish and Wildlife

The most evident effect of acid rain in ecosystem can be seen in aquatic environment i.e., lakes, ponds, marshes and streams where it might have devastating effects on the fish and other aquatic life (EPA, 2018). Aluminum is a metal present in the soil which is mixed with the acidic water when it rains. Their mixing results in more aluminum deposition in the water which then affects the survival of aquatic life gravely because they cannot survive in the presence of aluminum (Lefohn and Brocksen 2003).

It is important to note that adult aquatic life is comparatively immune to pH change as compared to the miniature and larval life. For example, fishes can survive in the pH of 5 but their eggs cannot be hatched at this level. Some adult fish might also die when pH level gets alleviated than 5 (Abrahamsen, 1987). Even fish and other species might tolerate the fluctuated pH levels but the plants necessary for their survival cannot endure it and threaten the survival of aquatic life.

2. Effects of Acidic Rain on Plants and Trees

An area—where frequent acidic rains are expected—is more prone to have dead or decayed trees as compared to the other ones. The most common disruption produced by the acidic rain is the leaching of aluminum from the soil—the key element responsible for plant growth and development (EPA, 2018). Acid rain contains chemical compounds that are more welcoming for minerals and nutrients and extracts them readily from the soil. The end result is obvious—impotent land with decaying plants and trees (Lefohn and Brocksen 2003).

3. Effects of Acidic Rain on Human Life

A bulk of literature is evident that swimming or walking in the ponds or lakes affected by acidic rain do not bring much danger for human health however when sulfur and nitrogenous compounds precipitate in the air after evaporation—it can be harmful for humans (Abrahamsen, 1987). These particles when inhaled in the lungs, affect lung and heart functioning adversely, elevating the risks of acquiring cardiovascular diseases, asthma and other breathing disorders. Moreover, acidic rain may also affect the skin if its pH level is altered to a considerable degree (Lefohn and Brocksen 2003).

Conclusion

Based on the above presented activity, it can be concluded that there are no pros of acidic rain but only cons. The most common disadvantages of acidic rain are visible in human, plant and aquatic life; need of the hour is to manage the industrial wastes and reduce the acidic agents to the simpler and productive compounds because prevention is always better than cure.

Works Cites

“What is acidic rain?” United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2018. https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain accessed 19 Apr. 2019

Lefohn, H. A. and Brocksen, W. R. “Acid Rain Effects Research—A Status Report.” Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, vol. 34, no. 10, 2012, pp. 1005-1013. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00022470.1984.10465847 accessed 19 Apr. 2019

Abrahamsen, G., A. O. Stuanes and B. Tveite. “Effects of long range transported air pollutants in Scandinavia.” Water Quality Bulletin, vol.8, 1987, pp.89-95.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Pro And Con HRT

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Pros and Cons of Hormonal Replacement Therapy

Hormonal Replacement Therapy has emerged as the most controversial term in the field of Medical science ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uu6gGvCG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Warren and Halpert)","plainCitation":"(Warren and Halpert)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":220,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/9ESHRHTA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/9ESHRHTA"],"itemData":{"id":220,"type":"article-journal","title":"Hormone replacement therapy: controversies, pros and cons","container-title":"Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism","page":"317-332","volume":"18","issue":"3","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","DOI":"10.1016/j.beem.2004.02.005","ISSN":"1521690X","title-short":"Hormone replacement therapy","journalAbbreviation":"Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Warren","given":"Michelle P"},{"family":"Halpert","given":"Sari"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004",9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Warren and Halpert). It refers to a treatment that contributes towards the relief of symptoms associated with the menopause. This is usually accomplished with the replacement of hormones that are lost in the menopause. These include Estrogen and Progesterone; therefore, the therapy comprises a replacement of both. The research paper analyses the pros and cons of Hormonal Replacement Therapy derived from credible sources.

Pros of a Hormonal Replacement Therapy

The foremost advantage of Hormonal Replacement Therapy is the relief of symptoms experienced by menopausal women. These symptoms are very disturbing and have a major impact on a woman's life. Below stated are the possible HRT effects on a female body that have contributed towards its popularity.

Relief of hot flushes

Hot flushes are the most common symptom of menopause, which results in sleep disorders and impaired mental health. HRT has proved to be 90% effective in contributing to the relief of hot flushes. Many women have considered the Hormonal Replacement Therapy and are reported to get cured of Hot flashes which have improved their physical and mental health ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OCcGBzS6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Scharf et al.)","plainCitation":"(Scharf et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":231,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/PFVWCTE8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/PFVWCTE8"],"itemData":{"id":231,"type":"article-journal","title":"Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on rates of cyclic alternating patterns and hot-flush events during sleep in postmenopausal women: a pilot study","container-title":"Clinical Therapeutics","page":"304-311","volume":"19","issue":"2","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate the effects of conjugated estrogens on the rates of cyclic alternating patterns of sleep (CAPS) and nocturnal hot flushes in symptomatic postmenopausal women. Seven postmenopausal or post-hysterectomy women aged 45 to 60 years with nocturnal diaphoresis and/or hot flushes participated in this study. The study was conducted with a single-masked design using a matching placebo. The placebo baseline was followed by a 4-week, single-masked treatment of conjugated estrogens 0.625 mg taken 4 hours before bedtime. Each patient's sleep was monitored in the laboratory for 3 consecutive nights during placebo baseline and again for 3 consecutive nights after an at-home period of at least 24 days of estrogen replacement therapy. Estrogen therapy resulted in a statistically significant decrease in the overall number of hot flushes and the number of hot flushes associated with awakenings, as well as improvement in sleep efficiency and a reduction in the rate of CAPS. These data confirm earlier well-established reports that estrogens reduce the frequency of hot flushes and suggest that the frequency of nocturnal arousals decreases and sleep quality improves in conjunction with a reduction in the rate of CAPS.","DOI":"10.1016/S0149-2918(97)80118-X","ISSN":"0149-2918","title-short":"Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on rates of cyclic alternating patterns and hot-flush events during sleep in postmenopausal women","journalAbbreviation":"Clinical Therapeutics","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Scharf","given":"Martin B."},{"family":"McDannold","given":"Michael D."},{"family":"Stover","given":"Robin"},{"family":"Zaretsky","given":"Nadia"},{"family":"Berkowitz","given":"David V."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997",3,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Scharf et al.).

Relief of urinary tract infections and sexual impairment

Due to the low level of estrogen at the vaginal site, Collagen loss occurs which increases the risk of urinary tract infections. The application of HRT usually minimizes the risk by the formation of new collagen. Moreover, the sexual problems faced as a result of low estrogen levels are also relieved ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7SSdtuxs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Utian et al.)","plainCitation":"(Utian et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":226,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/6AWPK966"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/6AWPK966"],"itemData":{"id":226,"type":"article-journal","title":"Relief of vasomotor symptoms and vaginal atrophy with lower doses of conjugated equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate","container-title":"Fertility and Sterility","page":"1065-1079","volume":"75","issue":"6","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of lower doses of conjugated equine estrogens (CEE) plus medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) for relieving vasomotor symptoms and vaginal atrophy. Design: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (the Women’s Health, Osteoporosis, Progestin, Estrogen study). Setting: Study centers across the United States. Patient(s): Two thousand, six hundred, seventy-three healthy, postmenopausal women with an intact uterus, including an efficacy-evaluable population (n = 241 at baseline). Intervention(s): Patients received for 1 year (13 cycles; in milligrams per day) CEE, 0.625; CEE, 0.625 and MPA, 2.5; CEE, 0.45; CEE, 0.45 and MPA, 2.5; CEE, 0.45 and MPA, 1.5; CEE, 0.3; CEE, 0.3 and MPA, 1.5; or placebo. Main Outcome Measure(s): Number and severity of hot flushes and Papanicolaou smear with vaginal maturation index (VMI) to assess vaginal atrophy. Result(s): In the efficacy-evaluable population, reduction in vasomotor symptoms was similar with CEE of 0.625 mg/d and MPA of 2.5 mg/d (the most commonly prescribed doses) and all lower combination doses. CEE of 0.625 mg/d alleviated hot flushes more effectively than the lower doses of CEE alone. VMI improved in all active treatment groups. Conclusion(s): Lower doses of CEE plus MPA relieve vasomotor symptoms and vaginal atrophy as effectively as commonly prescribed doses.","DOI":"10.1016/S0015-0282(01)01791-5","ISSN":"0015-0282","journalAbbreviation":"Fertility and Sterility","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Utian","given":"Wulf H"},{"family":"Shoupe","given":"Donna"},{"family":"Bachmann","given":"Gloria"},{"family":"Pinkerton","given":"Joanne V"},{"family":"Pickar","given":"James H"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001",6,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Utian et al.).

Relief of energy, sleep and mood impairment

Due to a high-level experience of hot flushes, menopausal women have reported having fatigue and depression. Lack of sleep due to the hot flushes makes women feel lazy and tired which in turn results in depression. According to the studies, HRT is thought to relieve these symptoms by directly decreasing the instance of hot flushes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oxPWMymY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hlatky et al.)","plainCitation":"(Hlatky et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":228,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/IL3GIFPC"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/IL3GIFPC"],"itemData":{"id":228,"type":"article-journal","title":"Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women After Receiving Hormone Therapy: Results From the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Trial","container-title":"JAMA","page":"591-597","volume":"287","issue":"5","source":"jamanetwork.com","abstract":"ContextPostmenopausal hormone therapy is commonly used by women for disease prevention, but its effects on quality of life have not been well documented.ObjectiveTo determine the effect on quality of life of estrogen plus progestin therapy used as secondary prevention in women with coronary artery disease.Design, Setting, and ParticipantsA total of 2763 postmenopausal women with documented coronary artery disease (mean age, 67 years) in the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study, a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial conducted from January 1993 to July 1998 at outpatient and community settings at 20 US clinical centers.InterventionParticipants were randomly assigned to receive either 0.625 mg/d of conjugated equine estrogen plus 2.5 mg/d of medroxyprogesterone acetate (n = 1380) or placebo (n = 1383) for 36 months.Main Outcome MeasuresPhysical activity, measured by the Duke Activity Status Index; energy/fatigue and mental health, measured by RAND scales; and depressive symptoms, measured on the Burnam screening scale, at 3 years of follow-up.ResultsIn all patients, scores declined significantly over 3 years for physical function (−3.8; P<.001), mental health (−0.6; P = .05), and energy/fatigue (−3.8; P<.001), but depressive symptoms were not significantly changed (P = .20). The effect of hormone therapy on these measures depended on the presence (n = 434) or absence (n = 2325) of flushing at study entry. Women with flushing who were assigned to hormone therapy had improved mental health (+2.6 vs − 0.5; P = .04) and fewer depressive symptoms (−0.5 vs + 0.007; P = .01) over follow-up compared with those assigned to placebo. Women without flushing who were assigned to hormone therapy had greater declines in physical function (−4.2 vs −3.3; P = .04) and energy/fatigue (−4.6 vs −3.1; P = .03) over follow-up. Quality-of-life scores were significantly lower among patients with older age, diabetes, hypertension, chest pain, or heart failure. These differences in quality of life among women classified by clinical characteristics were much greater than the effects of hormone therapy.ConclusionHormone therapy has mixed effects on quality of life among older women. The effects of hormone therapy depend on the presence of menopausal symptoms; women without flushing had greater declines in physical measures, while women with flushing had improvements in emotional measures of quality of life.","DOI":"10.1001/jama.287.5.591","ISSN":"0098-7484","title-short":"Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women After Receiving Hormone Therapy","journalAbbreviation":"JAMA","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hlatky","given":"Mark A."},{"family":"Boothroyd","given":"Derek"},{"family":"Vittinghoff","given":"Eric"},{"family":"Sharp","given":"Penny"},{"family":"Whooley","given":"Mary A."},{"family":"Group","given":"for the HERS Research"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",2,6]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hlatky et al.).

Skin repair and wound healing

The most common symptom of menopause is the thinning of skin due to the loss of collagen. This accelerates the aging process and increases the risk of injuries. Due to the thinning of the skin, it is more susceptible to skin disorders such as skin cancer. HRT has thought to improve the thickness of the skin because of collagen replenishment. This likewise increases the ability of the skin to heal and repair wounds ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rpViH7gd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Warren and Halpert)","plainCitation":"(Warren and Halpert)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":220,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/9ESHRHTA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/9ESHRHTA"],"itemData":{"id":220,"type":"article-journal","title":"Hormone replacement therapy: controversies, pros and cons","container-title":"Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism","page":"317-332","volume":"18","issue":"3","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","DOI":"10.1016/j.beem.2004.02.005","ISSN":"1521690X","title-short":"Hormone replacement therapy","journalAbbreviation":"Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Warren","given":"Michelle P"},{"family":"Halpert","given":"Sari"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004",9]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Warren and Halpert).

Prevention of Osteoporosis

Due to the decreased production of ovarian hormones, women are at greater risk of osteoporosis and bone mineralization. This is due to the poor mineral absorption which subsequently results in decreased bone development. HRT reduces the risk of osteoporosis by providing enough levels of estrogen necessary for bone strength and function ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8T9irUBH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Wells et al.)","plainCitation":"(Wells et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":236,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/6W6B3IGY"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/6W6B3IGY"],"itemData":{"id":236,"type":"article-journal","title":"V. Meta-Analysis of the Efficacy of Hormone Replacement Therapy in Treating and Preventing Osteoporosis in Postmenopausal Women","container-title":"Endocrine Reviews","page":"529-539","volume":"23","issue":"4","source":"academic.oup.com","abstract":"Objective: To review the effect of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on bone density and fractures in postmenopausal women.","DOI":"10.1210/er.2001-5002","ISSN":"0163-769X","journalAbbreviation":"Endocr Rev","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Wells","given":"George"},{"family":"Tugwell","given":"Peter"},{"family":"Shea","given":"Beverley"},{"family":"Guyatt","given":"Gordon"},{"family":"Peterson","given":"Joan"},{"family":"Zytaruk","given":"Nicole"},{"family":"Robinson","given":"Vivian"},{"family":"Henry","given":"David"},{"family":"O’Connell","given":"Diane"},{"family":"Cranney","given":"Ann"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",8,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Wells et al.).

Cons of a Hormonal Replacement Therapy

Increased risk of Breast cancer

As a conventional growth home, estrogen is thought to increase the risk of breast cancer. The increased levels of estrogen contribute to the unnecessary growth that develops into breast cancer. According to NHS, the incidence of breast cancer among women has accelerated in the five years of undergoing an HRT ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CLsZsaNE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Chen et al.)","plainCitation":"(Chen et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":239,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/24Q762SJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/24Q762SJ"],"itemData":{"id":239,"type":"article-journal","title":"Hormone Replacement Therapy in Relation to Breast Cancer","container-title":"JAMA","page":"734-741","volume":"287","issue":"6","source":"jamanetwork.com","abstract":"ContextStudies of long-term hormone replacement therapy (HRT) suggest an associated increased risk of breast cancer, but whether this association differs according to histologic type of cancer has not been extensively studied.ObjectiveTo determine whether the association between HRT and risk of breast cancer varies by HRT formulation and differs across histologic cancer types.Design, Setting, and ParticipantsNested case-control study among 705 postmenopausal women enrolled in the Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound (GHC) who were aged 50 to 74 years and had primary invasive breast cancer diagnosed between July 1, 1990, and December 31, 1995 (cases), and 692 randomly selected aged-matched female members of GHC (controls).Main Outcome MeasureIncidence and type of breast cancer by duration of HRT use in the 5-year period ending 1 year before diagnosis, which was ascertained from computerized pharmacy records.ResultsThe incidence of breast cancer, all histologic types combined, was increased by 60% to 85% in recent long-term users of HRT, whether estrogen alone or estrogen plus progestin. Longer use of HRT (odds ratio [OR], 3.07 for 57 months or more; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.55-6.06) and current use of combination therapy (OR, 3.91; 95% CI, 2.05-7.44) were associated with increased risk of lobular breast cancer. Long-term HRT use was associated with a 50% increase in nonlobular cancer (OR, 1.52 for 57 months or more; 95% CI, 1.01-2.29).ConclusionOur data add to the growing body of evidence that recent long-term use of HRT is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer and that such use may be related particularly to lobular tumors.","DOI":"10.1001/jama.287.6.734","ISSN":"0098-7484","journalAbbreviation":"JAMA","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Chen","given":"Chi-Ling"},{"family":"Weiss","given":"Noel S."},{"family":"Newcomb","given":"Polly"},{"family":"Barlow","given":"William"},{"family":"White","given":"Emily"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",2,13]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Chen et al.).

Increased risk of other cancers

HRT has proved as one of the risk factors for gynecological cancers such as ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer. This mainly occurs due to the increased levels of progesterone that contribute towards the unnecessary growth of tissues and cells ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"w101nokj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Coughlin et al.)","plainCitation":"(Coughlin et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":242,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/DFFZS8A9"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/DFFZS8A9"],"itemData":{"id":242,"type":"article-journal","title":"A meta-analysis of estrogen replacement therapy and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer","container-title":"Journal of Clinical Epidemiology","page":"367-375","volume":"53","issue":"4","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) has not been associated with epithelial ovarian cancer in most reported epidemiologic studies that have looked for an association. Some studies may have found weak statistically nonsignificant associations because the number of cases or number of women who reported estrogen use was small. We performed a meta-analysis of data from 15 case-control studies that provided data on ERT and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. The 15 combined studies were statistically heterogeneous (χ2 (14) = 26.3, P < 0.05) in terms of the effect they found. When we combined these studies using a random effects model, we did not find a significant association of ERT with ovarian cancer (odds ratio = 1.1, 95% confidence interval = 0.9–1.3). There was no clear evidence of a dose–response relation with increasing duration of estrogen use in a subset of five studies that reported estrogen use by duration (overall slope = 0.0012, 95% confidence interval = −0.0055 to 0.0080). The influences of statistical outliers, study design (hospital or clinic controls vs. community controls), and location (U.S. and Canada vs. Europe and Australia) were examined. The odds ratio was 1.3 (95% confidence interval = 1.0–1.6) in the relatively homogeneous subset of four U.S. case-control studies with community controls, but we cannot rule out the possibility of uncontrolled confounding. The odds ratios for estrogen use for other subgroups defined by geographic location and type of control group were not significantly different from one.","DOI":"10.1016/S0895-4356(99)00179-1","ISSN":"0895-4356","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Clinical Epidemiology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Coughlin","given":"Steven S."},{"family":"Giustozzi","given":"AnnGene"},{"family":"Smith","given":"S. Jay"},{"family":"Lee","given":"Nancy C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Coughlin et al.).

Cardiovascular disorders

There are no clear studies who have contributed to the literature of associating the cardiovascular disease with HRT. However, it is believed that it could be the reason for increased stroke and cardiovascular disorders among women of above 60 age. In any case, HRT is not recommended as it has the potential of increasing the primary embolism ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"k7T3uZEv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Matthews et al.)","plainCitation":"(Matthews et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":233,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/3LFEYTCG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/3LFEYTCG"],"itemData":{"id":233,"type":"article-journal","title":"Menopause and Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease","container-title":"New England Journal of Medicine","page":"641-646","volume":"321","issue":"10","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"POSTMENOPAUSAL women and women who have undergone oophorectomy have a higher risk of coronary artery disease than premenopausal women of similar ages.1 2 3 Smokers have an early natural menopause.4 A recent report suggests that when the confounding effects of smoking and age are considered, the increased risk of coronary artery disease associated with menopause may be restricted to women who have undergone bilateral oophorectomy and who have never received hormone-replacement therapy.5 Thus, whether or not an early natural menopause leads to an increase in the risk of coronary artery disease is unclear. On the other hand, studies of risk factors for . . .","DOI":"10.1056/NEJM198909073211004","ISSN":"0028-4793","note":"PMID: 2488072","author":[{"family":"Matthews","given":"Karen A."},{"family":"Meilahn","given":"Elaine"},{"family":"Kuller","given":"Lewis H."},{"family":"Kelsey","given":"Sheryl F."},{"family":"Caggiula","given":"Arlene W."},{"family":"Wing","given":"Rena R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1989",9,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Matthews et al.).

Works Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Chen, Chi-Ling, et al. “Hormone Replacement Therapy in Relation to Breast Cancer.” JAMA, vol. 287, no. 6, Feb. 2002, pp. 734–41. jamanetwork.com, doi:10.1001/jama.287.6.734.

Coughlin, Steven S., et al. “A Meta-Analysis of Estrogen Replacement Therapy and Risk of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 53, no. 4, Apr. 2000, pp. 367–75. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/S0895-4356(99)00179-1.

Hlatky, Mark A., et al. “Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women After Receiving Hormone Therapy: Results From the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Trial.” JAMA, vol. 287, no. 5, Feb. 2002, pp. 591–97. jamanetwork.com, doi:10.1001/jama.287.5.591.

Matthews, Karen A., et al. “Menopause and Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease.” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 321, no. 10, Sept. 1989, pp. 641–46. Taylor and Francis+NEJM, doi:10.1056/NEJM198909073211004.

Scharf, Martin B., et al. “Effects of Estrogen Replacement Therapy on Rates of Cyclic Alternating Patterns and Hot-Flush Events during Sleep in Postmenopausal Women: A Pilot Study.” Clinical Therapeutics, vol. 19, no. 2, Mar. 1997, pp. 304–11. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/S0149-2918(97)80118-X.

Utian, Wulf H., et al. “Relief of Vasomotor Symptoms and Vaginal Atrophy with Lower Doses of Conjugated Equine Estrogens and Medroxyprogesterone Acetate.” Fertility and Sterility, vol. 75, no. 6, June 2001, pp. 1065–79. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(01)01791-5.

Warren, Michelle P., and Sari Halpert. “Hormone Replacement Therapy: Controversies, Pros and Cons.” Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol. 18, no. 3, Sept. 2004, pp. 317–32. DOI.org (Crossref), doi:10.1016/j.beem.2004.02.005.

Wells, George, et al. “V. Meta-Analysis of the Efficacy of Hormone Replacement Therapy in Treating and Preventing Osteoporosis in Postmenopausal Women.” Endocrine Reviews, vol. 23, no. 4, Aug. 2002, pp. 529–39. academic.oup.com, doi:10.1210/er.2001-5002.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Project

Week 2 Short Essay Questions

Verner Commander (First M. Last)

School or Institution Name (University at Place or Town, State)

Week 2 Short Essay Questions

The aim of the project is to solve a certain issue or to meet a requirement therefore the initiation phase is one of the most important phases in a project. Within the initiation phase, the main problem is identified, and it describes the necessary details of the problem and the project. A project team is defined to deliver the solution to the customer. Another initiative of the project is the Business Case that consists of all the alternative solutions, benefits, costs and risks associated with the project. In addition, it also comprises of the summarized plan for implementation. The failure of most of the projects is that their preparation is not done well in the first place. The business case helps thwart those catastrophic failures because it clarifies the need to address a certain problem. It also provides the link to alternative solutions and gives the opportunity to assess the situation better. The business case in a better way to assess the initiation phase before planning.

Planning is the second phase which is highly dependent on the sponsor of the project. Planning needs the approval of the project sponsor. A project sponsor holds the overall accountability of the project and is role is to ensure that the project is delivered with its agreed benefits. The sponsor provides the resources of the project, and he provides guidance and expertise to the project manager as well. Sponsor also holds the responsibility of monitoring the project and ensures that it aligns with business goals and objectives. Along with that, he acts as a link which connects the project, business community, and the decision makers. As he is above the project manager, he takes decision beyond the power of the project manager.

Project requirements are the tasks that need to be completed to ensure the success of a project. Without clear project requirements, there is no road map to be followed and no ending point. Clear project requirements are meant to be aligned with the business objectives and project resources. The benefits of gathering the project requirements include a reduction in cost, high probability of project success and better communication between the stakeholders. Unclear and incomplete requirement statement is one of the factors directly linked with project failure (Burek, 2008). The quality of project requirements can be obtained by clearly differentiating between the project's "what's and how's."

Special customer conditions are the add-ons to existing project requirements. In the special customer requirements, a customer might require adjustments to the previous instructions to fit their needs. For instance, a special condition can be that a contractor may need a special security clearance before initiating the work. The project has to meet the required special needs and conditions of the customer to satisfy him. It is essential to give equal consideration and importance to the special needs and must be considered as one of the project deliverables.

The statement of work is a critical component of the project requirements. It is the detailed description of the tasks that need to be performed under a certain project and covers all the defined aspects of the project. As described it is the overview of the dimensions of the project and it offers numerous benefits. SOW allows sharing of information with the vendors and contractors. Besides, it offers the benefits by saving the time of the project team, and it also helps avoid conflicts in the project. For instance, in case of ambiguity in any of the project requirement, SOW will make sure everyone is involved and will leave confusion to a minimum, which is the cause of conflicts. In addition, it helps avoid scope creep. Well written SOW is essential to maintain the smooth flow of project throughout all of its phases.

References

Burek, P. (2008). Creating Clear Project Requirements–Differentiating "What" from "How." Colorado, USA.: In Originally published as part of 2008 PMI Global Congress Proceedings–Denver.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Puberty In Boys- Principal Signs Of Puberty And Hormonal Control

Puberty in Boys-Principal Signs of Puberty and Hormonal Control

Puberty in Boys-Principal Signs of Puberty and Hormonal Control

Initiation of hormonal and bodily changes which render an adolescent capable of reproduction, is known as puberty. At the end of this process, sexual maturity is also attained. Changes that occur in the body of a male child are different from the changes that occur in the body of a female child. Before a boy hits puberty, he goes through some mental changes before physical changes and this is the very first stage of puberty. In this stage, the brain prepares the body for changes and his hypothalamus begins to release a gonadotropin-releasing hormone which travels to the pituitary gland. He then enters his second stage of puberty at the age of eleven and sees changes in his body that start from the enlargement of testicles and redness of his scrotum ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7oggkAUN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stoppler, n.d.)","plainCitation":"(Stoppler, n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":361,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/L6P67DCG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/bWNXhCgk/items/L6P67DCG"],"itemData":{"id":361,"type":"webpage","title":"Puberty Definition, Stages, Duration, Signs for Boys & Girls","URL":"https://www.medicinenet.com/puberty/article.htm","author":[{"family":"Stoppler","given":"Melissa"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,20]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Stoppler, n.d.). The scrotum is the skin around the testicles which gets thinner and pubic hair start to appear on the base of the penis. Then at the age of 13, which is the third stage, physical changes start in his body that include growing of penis and testicles and forming of breast tissues under the nipples which are also called “man’s boobs”. He will have wet dreams that would result in random ejaculations.

Along with all these changes, his voice will also begin to change and may “crack”. It means that the pitch will be much deeper and thicker and there will be continuous growth in the muscles and height which is 2 to 3.2 inches per year. Puberty goes in its full swing once he enters in stage 4 which occurs mostly at the age of 14. All the lower parts of his body including penis, testicles and scrotum continue to grow bigger and scrotum gets darker in colour. The thick and deep voice becomes permanent and he will have armpit hair too. They turn into a big muscular person with hair all over the body especially thighs and chest. Puberty is a normal stage but it can be disturbing as well because it includes mood swings and other emotional changes which makes a person emotionally challenged, so it is important to help and support them in time of puberty.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Stoppler, M. (n.d.). Puberty Definition, Stages, Duration, Signs for Boys & Girls. Retrieved November 20, 2019, from https://www.medicinenet.com/puberty/article.htm

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Quiz

Question

Answer

1

B

2

A

3

B

4

D

5

C

6

A

7

B

8

D

9

B

10

B

11

C

12

D

13

D

14

A

15

A

16

B

17

D

18

C

19

D

20

B

21

E

22

E

23

B

24

C

25

B

26

C

27

C

28

E

29

D

30

D

31

E

32

E

33

C

34

E

35

E

36

B

37

C

38

E

39

C

40

C

41

C

42

B

43

A

44

C

45

B

46

C

47

D

48

A

49

E

50

A

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 8 Words: 2400

RBC: Discuss The Structures And Functions Of Erythrocytes



RBC: Structure and Function of Erythrocytes

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

RBC: Structure and Function of Erythrocytes

The most interesting fact that I found about red blood cells is that the mature blood cells, after they are released into the bloodstream, hardly survive for 120 days. This shows that the average life span of red blood cells is 120 days ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nmGk09Ct","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hattangadi & Lodish, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Hattangadi & Lodish, 2007)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":25,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9FPdQOCJ/items/G3MY4HXA"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9FPdQOCJ/items/G3MY4HXA"],"itemData":{"id":25,"type":"article-journal","title":"Regulation of erythrocyte lifespan: do reactive oxygen species set the clock?","container-title":"The Journal of clinical investigation","page":"2075–2077","volume":"117","issue":"8","source":"Google Scholar","title-short":"Regulation of erythrocyte lifespan","author":[{"family":"Hattangadi","given":"Shilpa M."},{"family":"Lodish","given":"Harvey F."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Hattangadi & Lodish, 2007). This makes us wonder how our body can retain large quantities of blood when blood cells are continuously destroyed. Continuous availably of Red blood cells is ensured by the hematopoietic stem cells of the bone marrow which are responsible for the formation of blood cells by the process called “erythropoiesis”. The naïve blood cells contain nucleus but the moment they enter into the bloodstream they lose their nucleus and become mature.

Red blood cell has a biconcave shape with a diameter of about 2-8 µm. During the routine examinations, they make an ideal candidate for “histologic rulers”. If we examine the mature blood cell, we will realize that it resembles a donut which indicates the central portion is thinner than the edges. This structural characteristic mainly supports red blood cells to perform its function. As you already described the function according to which blood cells are responsible for the transport of oxygen throughout the body, the structure makes it ideal for that purpose. The biconcave shaped feature of red blood cells increases the surface area of the cell so it incorporates normal quantities of oxygen and facilitates its transport to and fro from body tissues and lungs. The oxygen is mainly carried by hemoglobin present in the cells. It is a component of the red blood cells that is essential for oxygen transport. If the blood cells are a deficit in hemoglobin, they lead to several blood disorders among which the most significant one is Sickle Cell Anemia ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UBOjKhAr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Eaton & Hofrichter, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Eaton & Hofrichter, 1990)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":23,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9FPdQOCJ/items/PHCI6M3H"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/9FPdQOCJ/items/PHCI6M3H"],"itemData":{"id":23,"type":"chapter","title":"Sickle cell hemoglobin polymerization","container-title":"Advances in protein chemistry","publisher":"Elsevier","page":"63–279","volume":"40","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Eaton","given":"William A."},{"family":"Hofrichter","given":"James"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Eaton & Hofrichter, 1990). It mainly occurs due to the mutation in the gene that forms hemoglobin as indicated by you. The essay is quite well written and covers the basic purpose of the topic with extra information quoted from the outside source.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Eaton, W. A., & Hofrichter, J. (1990). Sickle cell hemoglobin polymerization. In Advances in protein chemistry (Vol. 40, pp. 63–279). Elsevier.

Hattangadi, S. M., & Lodish, H. F. (2007). Regulation of erythrocyte lifespan: Do reactive oxygen species set the clock? The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 117(8), 2075–2077.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Reflection Paper

Genetic Genealogy

[Name of Writer]

[Name of Institution]

Genetic genealogy refers to the study of ancestral markers in the genome. There are three genealogical genetic tests to confirm or disprove ancestral linkage which can then be used for various purposes. Genetic ancestry brings together time, physical space and genetic markers. CITATION Nas15 \l 1033 (Nash, 2015) The first of the three tests to determine genetic ancestry is the Autosomal type which looks through chromosome 1-22 as well as the X chromosome. Ancestral blocks or genetic markers with ancestral linkage are tested. This type of test is preferred for ethnicity testing. The second type is Y chromosome testing for ancestral markers which only establishes a direct paternal line as Y chromosome is only passed from father to son. CITATION Per05 \l 1033 (Perego, 2005) The third type is testing mitochondrial DNA which is used for getting the direct maternal line since it is inherited from mother to child.

Genealogical DNA testing has many advantages. One of the most commercialized and popular advantage to come out of it is a genetic determination of ethnicity. Several companies now work to carry out these tests and establish percentage ethnicity for their customers. Another significant application of these tests is in law enforcement as ancestry estimates in forensics can help solve cold cases by creating previously ignored ethnical connections. However, there are limitations to these tests as well. When specifying ethnicity, diversity in algorithms and reference genomes by different companies can create disparities in their results. The genetic differentiations among the residents of a geographical area being clumped are another limiting factor. A low number of markers also limit the reliability and accuracy of test results. These unreliable results can socially become the basis of race boundaries when race is scientifically known to be arbitrary. CITATION Shr04 \l 1033 (Shriver, 2004)

It is therefore important to understand that while genetic genealogy is a promising field of research and development with exciting possibilities, it is also one with its own scientific and social limitations which need to be taken into account.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Nash, C. (2015). Genetic geographies: the trouble with ancestry. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota Press.

Perego, U. A. (2005). The science of molecular genealogy. National Genealogical Society Quarterly, 245-259.

Shriver, M. D. (2004). Genetic ancestry and the search for personalized genetic histories. Nature Reviews Genetics, 611-618.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Reply To Two Student

Penicillium chrysogenum and Acetobacter aceti

Author name

Affiliations

Penicillium chrysogenum and Acetobacter Aceti

Reply 1:

Penicillium chrysogenum is a species of Penicillium that has been studied extensively. Its commercial strains are a source of antibiotics such as penicillin that works by stopping the biosynthesis of bacterial cell walls. It is specifically present in indoor environments that have high humidity and dampness such as food products and water-damaged building. Moreover, its colonies are blue-green also having yellowish pigment. It is mainly responsible for breaking down organic material in nature. It is famous for allergen as well as for pathogen and assist in protecting crops from certain pathogenic attacks. Furthermore, it causes infection in immunocompetent patients ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XuudY5Dh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Barcus, Burdette, & Herchline, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Barcus, Burdette, & Herchline, 2005)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2745,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/JZRVGKRJ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/JZRVGKRJ"],"itemData":{"id":2745,"type":"article-journal","title":"Intestinal invasion and disseminated disease associated with Penicillium chrysogenum","container-title":"Annals of clinical microbiology and antimicrobials","page":"21","volume":"4","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"Barcus","given":"Adrian L."},{"family":"Burdette","given":"Steven D."},{"family":"Herchline","given":"Thomas E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Barcus, Burdette, & Herchline, 2005).

Reply 2:

Acetobacter aceti is an environmental bacterium that is mainly associated with flowers, fruits, and soil. In fruits, it causes rotting and browning discoloration such as in apples, pears, and citrus products. I agree that it is used by many economies to support them as they use it for food production on a commercial scale. Furthermore, it is being studied in bacteriology for its ability to oxidize ethanol and produces acetic acid that is used in the production of vinegar ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hLBzCcqs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Arai, Sakurai, & Ishii, 2016)","plainCitation":"(Arai, Sakurai, & Ishii, 2016)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":2746,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/GQLAAUM8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/KZl8ZL3A/items/GQLAAUM8"],"itemData":{"id":2746,"type":"chapter","title":"Metabolic features of Acetobacter aceti","container-title":"Acetic Acid Bacteria","publisher":"Springer","page":"255-271","author":[{"family":"Arai","given":"Hiroyuki"},{"family":"Sakurai","given":"Kenta"},{"family":"Ishii","given":"Masaharu"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Arai, Sakurai, & Ishii, 2016). It is an obligatory aerobic bacterium that can fix nitrogen and produce alcohol as a byproduct. Likewise, it can also be used in the spoilage of alcoholic products such as wine. However, it is yet not reported as a pathogenic microbe to humans as well as animals as it does not yield any toxin or enzyme that can cause harm to human or animal. Its nature is ubiquitous and all animals come in contact with this bacterium frequently.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Arai, H., Sakurai, K., & Ishii, M. (2016). Metabolic features of Acetobacter acetic. In Acetic Acid Bacteria (pp. 255–271). Springer.

Barcus, A. L., Burdette, S. D., & Herchline, T. E. (2005). Intestinal invasion and disseminated disease associated with Penicillium chrysogenum. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 4(1), 21.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Reply To Two Student

Reply

[Author Name]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Reply

Response 1

Dear Camilo, after reading your post I must say that you did a wonderful job in explaining Seoul Virus especially the contamination methods helped a lot in understanding how people might get infected with this virus. Seoul is a type of Hantavirus that results in hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. This virus is carried by rats yet they are immune to this virus. I also agree with you that this virus is spread not only through direct exposure of the contaminated material but also through infected rat’s urine and saliva. However, also I would like to add that there is no evidence that this virus is spread through one human to another. During an outbreak in different states of the US, 11 people got infected with this virus (Kerins, & Seoul Virus Working Group 2018). Therefore I also agree with your point that there is a need to spread awareness regarding this disease as most of the people have rats as their pets and are more prone to getting infected. Several tests such as the PCR test can help in detecting this virus. So if a person has fever, inflammation, and redness with abdominal pain, he must go to nearby health care facility to get tested for this virus as a precautionary measure.

Response 2

Dear Janelle, you did an incredible job of explaining SARS. The approach you used in explaining the syndrome is commendable. SARS can be referred to as a serious form of pneumonia in which a person faces severe difficulty in breathing. While discussing the epidemiology of this syndrome there were approximately more than 5328 cases of people getting infected with this virus in China during the outbreak (Holmes, 2003). I agree with you that this disease is spreading through human to human contact. However, I would also like to add that people can also get infected even by using the contaminated utensils of an infected person or sharing food. As SARS is a respiratory syndrome I also agree with you that it can be diagnosed after taking a chest X-ray or CT-scan. There is no specific treatment of SARS yet people are given antibiotics and can be put on a ventilator or supplemental oxygen if necessary. Although, following proper hygiene can protect people from getting infected with this virus.

References

Kerins, J. L., Koske, S. E., Kazmierczak, J., Austin, C., Gowdy, K., Dibernardo, A., ... & Seoul Virus Working Group. (2018). Outbreak of Seoul virus among rats and rat owners—United States and Canada, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67(4), 131.

Holmes, K. V. (2003). SARS coronavirus: a new challenge for prevention and therapy. The Journal of clinical investigation, 111(11), 1605-1609.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Reply To Two Student

Response to Students

[Name of Writer]

[Name of Institution]

Response 1:

The post raises a very critical issue that, theoretically, should have been ameliorated in the context of modern medicine. It has been correctly identified that the leading cause for the persistent growth of MRSA is negligence. There is credible evidence to prove that staph infections can be contained if appropriate practices of quarantines and caution are properly implemented. Insufficient hand sanitization, lack of proper disinfection of linens and bed sheets before reuse and use of infected surgical tools are few of the leading causes of the spread of MRSA from hospitals. There is a growing need to focus on the possible solutions for this problem. As the root cause is not medical and is rather related to lack of awareness, the proper solution also lies in educating hospital staff as well as patients. CITATION Hee15 \l 1033 (Hee‐Kyung Chun, 2015)

Response 2:

There is a pertinent contention raised in your post since Bordetella pertussis is associated with an infectious disease proving to be significantly fatal in infants. What makes this issue even more relevant to the current scenario in modern medicine is that the bacteria adapt to the vaccines that are designed against it. This ability of Bordetella pertussis to consistently change itself is the reason why even the most potent vaccine currently in clinical use against it cannot efficiently counter whooping cough. It is therefore crucial that vaccines capable of decisively countering Bordetella pertussis are introduced to the market. Currently, there are studies exploring new avenues like the molecular level of the immunization against Bordetella pertussis. CITATION RHM18 \l 1033 (R HM Raeven, 2018) Research in this field must be encouraged so we reach a potent solution sooner rather than later.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Hee‐Kyung Chun, K.‐M. K.‐R. (2015). Effects of hand hygiene education and individual feedback on hand hygiene behaviour, MRSA acquisition rate and MRSA colonization pressure among intensive care unit nurses. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 709-715.

R HM Raeven, J. B. (2018). Molecular and cellular signatures underlying superior immunity against Bordetella pertussis upon pulmonary vaccination. Mucosal immunology, 979.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Research And Report

Title

Name

Institution

Research and Report

The human circulatory system is a vast system of vessels and organs that are basically accountable for the flow of blood and oxygen from and to the entire body. Without this particular system the body would be unable to resist different pathogens, and also the internal environment of the body like pH and temperature would not be stable which is also called homeostasis. The blood circulatory system consists of four main parts, which are heart, arteries, veins and also blood. Oxygen gas enters the blood flow through tiny membranes in the lungs; this small membrane absorbs oxygen when it gets inhaled. When the body uses oxygen gas and it produces carbon dioxide the lungs then push out that gas. The role of the immune system is quite significant in our body. It helps in fighting against diseases and keeps us healthy. When the immune system works properly, then it can identify all types of threats and foreign agents and then removes them from our body. There are two main types of immunity one is called innate immunity, and the other one is called adaptive immunity (Oplatal et al., 1997). Innate immunity is that type of immunity a person is born with. It mainly consists of the barrier that is present in or outside the body. While adaptive immunity is also called acquired immunity, it targets the basic threats to the body. While the lymphatic system is vessel system of cells and organs that not only carries excess fluid to the body but it also filters pathogens (Lazuardi et al., 2005).

The lymphatic and blood circulatory system are closely related to each other. Blood vessels are not thick vessels that don't leak blood. Blood vessels can also leak blood, but the lymphatic system makes sure that the leaked blood goes back to the bloodstream of the individual. When from the blood vessel a small number of fluid leaks then it is collected between the spaces of cells and other tissues. While some of the blood flows back to the cardiovascular system most of it is collected by the lymphatic system. The immune system is quite crucial in maintaining the homeostasis by preparing the body to resist against different kinds of infections. It also helps in the healing process of the body. It helps in increasing the blood to bring oxygen and other immune cells to the site where the infection has taken place.

The pulmonary circulation is responsible for moving blood between the lungs and heart. In this case, the oxygenated blood flows back to the heart. While the responsibility of systematic circulation is to distribute the blood between the heart and rest of the body. Here oxygenated blood is sent to the body while deoxygenated blood comes back to the heart. While portal circulation is the movement of blood from the gut area through the liver than to the heart.

While the T and B cells are both parts of the immune system, the T cells are originated from thymus while the B cells are originated from bone marrow. While the B cells can attach to the foreign bodies on the exterior of the invading virus, the T cells can attach to the antigen on the outside of the antigens. The life span of the T cell is long while the B cells life span is quite short (Calcagni & Elenkov, 2006).

Spleen is situated under the ribcage in the left part of the abdomen. It works incorporation with the lymphatic system to protect the human body against any worn-out red blood cells and other foreign agents. While tonsils act as a filtering agent against any bacteria and virus that enters the body through the mouth (Doherty & Zinkernagel, 1974), these are located in the throat and helps in protecting the body against any foreign body that enters through the mouth.

The human body is made up of a complicated system. Each body organ is specified to perform a specific function. While each of them performs their function quite perfectly but at the same time, they coordinate with each other to carry out the task in a well-organized way. While there is always the thread that a foreign agent will attack the body, therefore, the immune system along with other system make sure that these foreign agents washed away from the body before any serious damage.

References

Calcagni, E., & Elenkov, I. (2006). Stress system activity, innate and T helper cytokines, and susceptibility to immune‐related diseases. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1069(1), 62-76.

Doherty, P. C., & Zinkernagel, R. M. (1974). T‐cell‐mediated immunopathology in viral infections. Immunological Reviews, 19(1), 89-120.

Lazuardi, L., Jenewein, B., Wolf, A. M., Pfister, G., Tzankov, A., & Grubeck‐Loebenstein, B. (2005). Age‐related loss of naive T cells and dysregulation of T‐cell/B‐cell interactions in human lymph nodes. Immunology, 114(1), 37-43.

Opletal, L., Sovova, M., Dittrich, M., Solich, P., Dvorak, J., Krátký, F., ... & Hofbauer, J. (1997). Phytotherapeutic aspects of diseases of the circulatory system. 6. Leuzea carthamoides (WILLD.) DC: the status of research and possible use of the taxon. Ceska a Slovenska farmacie: casopis Ceske farmaceuticke spolecnosti a Slovenske farmaceuticke spolecnosti, 46(6), 247-255.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Research Summary

Research Summary

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Research Summary

There is a growing number of animals which shows avoidance of those areas that are linkedwith conspecific death but it is still unclear that how the wild population use these experiences in order to find out the novel predators. Therefore,in this study through experiments it was demonstrated that the white American Crows responds to various death conspecifics through crowding, by increasing the total time to reach for the food particularly in those regions which are linkedwith these events and also by learning about new predators depending on the closeness to dead crows and hawks. In crows, it is observed that when there is any death in their population they respond to that loss by coming in groups and making various noise, therefore the main reason that led to this study was to find out that how the crows respond to danger and how they respond to lose in their population. The hypothesis that was formulated in this study was that whether crows sense danger by some specific stimulants or not and how they respond or what are the strategies that are adopted by them in order to protect themselves against these dangers.

In order to find out the hypothesis three experiments were designed, each with three phases that include conditioning, stimulus presentation and post exposure. Throughout all phases of the experiment a single observer and data collector supplied foodstuff at a constantsite daily at the same time. In the conditioning phases birds at each side approached the foodstuff during the set observation period for 3 continuous days. On the 4th day, the stimulus presentation phase was started. During this phase, volunteers wearing masks with neutral expressions approached the site where the crows were present and the mob formation activity was observed. Once all the data were collected from these experimental sites then the data was analyzed using statistical tools. In order to determine the molding and scolding responses, one-way ANOVA was used to compare the crowd size among the stimuli. The findings of the study were quite astonishing, once the volunteers reached the location the crows mobbed and also they increased their time to reach the food that was present on the given site which approached to 72 hours after they observed humans with a dead crow, however when the same volunteer reached the site with same masks but with a dead pigeon, same response was not elicited in the birds. This was interesting and it helped to assess that for crow’s dead conspecifics shows a sign of danger rather than dead hetero-specifics. When the stimulus was offeredthenprevention of foodstuff was prominent when the crows saw a dead crow with a hawk.

Therefore, the hypothesis in this study was proved that crows respond to various threats by mobbing and also they learn about the places and people who are associated with the conspecific death. This research study is important in science because it provides an insight that how animals respond to dangers and what strategies they use in order to recognize various dangers. Although this is a very effective study to determine the response of birds to various dangers but in this experiment, only one stimulant was used and also the defense mechanism of the birds is not explained in this paper. When I first read the abstract I thought that this will provide a brief summary of the crow’s behavior to dead crows but this paper is only focused on one stimulant and one mobbing response of the birds. It would be helpful if the researchers used a variety of stimulants and other defending strategies of the birds.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Respond To All

Biology and Life Sciences

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Biology and Life Sciences

Many philosophers and religious scholars attempted to find out the beginning of life and finally they concluded that such questions cannot be answered due to the complexity of the question. Still, there are attempts to answer this question and in order to do that there should be some information first. In modern biology, it is a common belief that life is a continuous process in which living cells give rise to a new type of cells which results in new individuals. Therefore, the fundamental information that is required in this case is that to find out that when a new cell which is absolutely different from the sperm and egg comes to existence? When an egg and sperm fuse with each other they produce zygote which is a new cell type. This zygote contains all the main components of both egg and sperm and within this single cell there is a complete and vast plan for the development of a complete organism. Therefore, it is safe to say here that the zygote that is formed by the fusion of both sperm and egg is the beginning of a new life ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jrG5wSFU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}A Scientific View of When Life Begins | Charlotte Lozier Institute,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“A Scientific View of When Life Begins | Charlotte Lozier Institute,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1686,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/5MN2PLLZ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/5MN2PLLZ"],"itemData":{"id":1686,"type":"webpage","title":"A Scientific View of When Life Begins | Charlotte Lozier Institute","URL":"https://lozierinstitute.org/a-scientific-view-of-when-life-begins/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,22]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“A Scientific View of When Life Begins | Charlotte Lozier Institute,” n.d.).

The reproductive system is vital in the human body in order to maintain the homeostasis. In case of the female body the reproductive system helps to maintain the homeostasis by regulating the pH of vagina while in case of the male, homeostasis is maintained by controlling and regulating the overall temperature of the testis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cIFOUJ1O","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}The relationship between the reproduction system with homeostasis | Shanthini Dorairajoo - Academia.edu,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“The relationship between the reproduction system with homeostasis | Shanthini Dorairajoo - Academia.edu,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1688,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/RSRU7HLX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/RSRU7HLX"],"itemData":{"id":1688,"type":"webpage","title":"The relationship between the reproduction system with homeostasis | Shanthini Dorairajoo - Academia.edu","URL":"https://www.academia.edu/27340005/The_relationship_between_the_reproduction_system_with_homeostasis","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,22]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“The relationship between the reproduction system with homeostasis | Shanthini Dorairajoo - Academia.edu,” n.d.). There are various homeostatic mechanisms in the body that helps to keep the internal environment of the body within certain limits if these cells do not function correctly then homeostatic disruption happens. This homeostatic imbalance leads to a proper state of diseases and a well-known and most common example of homeostatic imbalance is diabetes. In case of diabetes, the endocrine system is unable to maintain the blood glucose level, therefore, this condition occurs when there is a certain homeostatic imbalance which depends on both genetics and also lifestyle of the individual.

There are four patterns of inheritance that include the autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked dominant and X-linked recessive however it is also true that not all the genetic conditions follow these patterns, there are also some very less known pattern of inheritance as well which are called the mitochondrial inheritance. The pattern of inheritance plays a very significant role at the beginning of life because these genes that play a significant role in inheritance carry all the important information from parents to the newborn and that way the genetic information is inherited from the parents to the offspring and also the genes are helpful in determining sex of the offspring therefore at the beginning of life the pattern of inheritance that is determined by genes play a very important role ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oDiyt0Xt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}INHERITANCE PATTERNS - Understanding Genetics - NCBI Bookshelf,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“INHERITANCE PATTERNS - Understanding Genetics - NCBI Bookshelf,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1690,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/6RPCURHD"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/4C6u8dIT/items/6RPCURHD"],"itemData":{"id":1690,"type":"webpage","title":"INHERITANCE PATTERNS - Understanding Genetics - NCBI Bookshelf","URL":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK115561/","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",4,22]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“INHERITANCE PATTERNS - Understanding Genetics - NCBI Bookshelf,” n.d.)

The source that I used for the inheritance pattern is taken from the NCBI website. I found this source credible and reliable because in this source the facts about the inheritance patterns are listed without comparing the information or facts with other sources and also most of the information that is present on this site are authentic and included only after the fact is supported with scientific evidence and research. Therefore, this source that is used in this paper is reliable and unbiased.

Reference

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY A Scientific View of When Life Begins | Charlotte Lozier Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2019, from https://lozierinstitute.org/a-scientific-view-of-when-life-begins/

INHERITANCE PATTERNS - Understanding Genetics - NCBI Bookshelf. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2019, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK115561/

The relationship between the reproduction system with homeostasis | Shanthini Dorairajoo - Academia.edu. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2019, from https://www.academia.edu/27340005/The_relationship_between_the_reproduction_system_with_homeostasis

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Response 1

Response 1

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

[Include any grant/funding information and a complete correspondence address.]

Response 1

Did you know the human body is composed of cells that actively facilitate the drive of constituents through the cell membrane? To understand the complex biological and metabolic processes, it is essential to know about the transport systems. This response focuses on the mechanisms of transport these cells adopt to carry ions, water and oxygen across the cells. Two of the key transport systems are characterized by active and passive transport ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mDwgtKVQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dr, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Dr, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":154,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/49BQV3GQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/49BQV3GQ"],"itemData":{"id":154,"type":"book","title":"Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function","publisher":"McGraw-Hill Education","number-of-pages":"1248","source":"Google Books","abstract":"A Doody's Core Title for 2017!With Saladin, students make connections through learning outcomes and assessments, integrated media, and a writing style that clearly depicts anatomy and physiology processes. A consistent set of chapter learning tools helps students identify and retain key concepts while the stunning visual program provides a realistic view of body structures and processes.Saladin's text requires no prior knowledge of college chemistry or cell biology, and is designed for a two-semester A&P course. Users who purchase Connect Plus receive access to the full online ebook version of the textbook, as well full access to LearnSmart, SmartBook, and Anatomy & Physiology Revealed. The seventh edition's changes focus primarily on new science (30+ updates based on advances in science), new writing (30+ new sections of text to improve discussion, update terminology, and include new Deeper Insight examples), and 40+ new and revised photos and illustrations. Also, a new appendix has been added to the 7th edition to include the complete genetic code. Significant improvements have also been made to the Connect question banks.","ISBN":"978-0-07-340371-7","note":"Google-Books-ID: lmr8nQEACAAJ","title-short":"Anatomy & Physiology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Dr","given":"Kenneth S. Saladin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",1,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dr, 2014).

Active transport refers to the movement of substances such as ions, water and oxygen across the cell membrane along their concentration gradient. This movement does not involve the expenditure of energy. Examples of such transport are diffusion and osmosis. It is the process of diffusion that helps oxygen transport through cells. Studies have shown several factors that affect the diffusion frequency ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ta8bRwcT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dr, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Dr, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":154,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/49BQV3GQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/49BQV3GQ"],"itemData":{"id":154,"type":"book","title":"Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function","publisher":"McGraw-Hill Education","number-of-pages":"1248","source":"Google Books","abstract":"A Doody's Core Title for 2017!With Saladin, students make connections through learning outcomes and assessments, integrated media, and a writing style that clearly depicts anatomy and physiology processes. A consistent set of chapter learning tools helps students identify and retain key concepts while the stunning visual program provides a realistic view of body structures and processes.Saladin's text requires no prior knowledge of college chemistry or cell biology, and is designed for a two-semester A&P course. Users who purchase Connect Plus receive access to the full online ebook version of the textbook, as well full access to LearnSmart, SmartBook, and Anatomy & Physiology Revealed. The seventh edition's changes focus primarily on new science (30+ updates based on advances in science), new writing (30+ new sections of text to improve discussion, update terminology, and include new Deeper Insight examples), and 40+ new and revised photos and illustrations. Also, a new appendix has been added to the 7th edition to include the complete genetic code. Significant improvements have also been made to the Connect question banks.","ISBN":"978-0-07-340371-7","note":"Google-Books-ID: lmr8nQEACAAJ","title-short":"Anatomy & Physiology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Dr","given":"Kenneth S. Saladin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",1,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dr, 2014). These include temperature, molecular mass, concentration slope, membrane surface zone, membrane penetrability and polarization. The movement of solvent from the area of lesser solute concentration to the area of higher soulte concentration is called osmosis. It is another type of passive transport that doesn't involve energy expenditure.

Another type of transport that requires the vitality expenditure to transport substrates against the concentration gradient is known as active transport ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dVqrqX5a","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dr, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Dr, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":154,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/49BQV3GQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/49BQV3GQ"],"itemData":{"id":154,"type":"book","title":"Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function","publisher":"McGraw-Hill Education","number-of-pages":"1248","source":"Google Books","abstract":"A Doody's Core Title for 2017!With Saladin, students make connections through learning outcomes and assessments, integrated media, and a writing style that clearly depicts anatomy and physiology processes. A consistent set of chapter learning tools helps students identify and retain key concepts while the stunning visual program provides a realistic view of body structures and processes.Saladin's text requires no prior knowledge of college chemistry or cell biology, and is designed for a two-semester A&P course. Users who purchase Connect Plus receive access to the full online ebook version of the textbook, as well full access to LearnSmart, SmartBook, and Anatomy & Physiology Revealed. The seventh edition's changes focus primarily on new science (30+ updates based on advances in science), new writing (30+ new sections of text to improve discussion, update terminology, and include new Deeper Insight examples), and 40+ new and revised photos and illustrations. Also, a new appendix has been added to the 7th edition to include the complete genetic code. Significant improvements have also been made to the Connect question banks.","ISBN":"978-0-07-340371-7","note":"Google-Books-ID: lmr8nQEACAAJ","title-short":"Anatomy & Physiology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Dr","given":"Kenneth S. Saladin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",1,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dr, 2014).This energy is provided by the breakdown of ATP. Cell membrane adopts this mechanism when the molecules that move across the membrane are large. One such type of this transport is facilitated diffusion that involves a carrier molecule to move the large substances across the cell. The carrier molecule is mainly protein embedded in the cell membrane such as a sodium-potassium pump that serves as a gateway to transport ions across the membrane with the help of energy from an ATP breakdown. Studies have shown that Active Transport may either be direct or indirect ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"j8m3t1x0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"({\\i{}Quantitative Human Physiology}, 2012)","plainCitation":"(Quantitative Human Physiology, 2012)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":156,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/IDHTDT42"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/IDHTDT42"],"itemData":{"id":156,"type":"book","title":"Quantitative Human Physiology","publisher":"Elsevier","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","URL":"https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/C20090640186","ISBN":"978-0-12-382163-8","note":"DOI: 10.1016/C2009-0-64018-6","language":"en","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",11,1]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Quantitative Human Physiology, 2012). In the former, energy is used by the hydrolysis of ATP by directly binding, while, in the latter, already stored energy is used.

Vesicular transport is another type of Active transport that involves processes such as endocytosis and exocytosis. Endocytosis is the vesicular movement inside the cell while exocytosis contributes to the outside transport. An amazing example of such a system in a human is the engulfment of bacteria through endocytosis. Furthermore, I want to add that Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a complex type, which is performed with the help of receptor molecules embedded in the clathrin protein ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"iGyN59y8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dr, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Dr, 2014)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":154,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/49BQV3GQ"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/CKNkWnK9/items/49BQV3GQ"],"itemData":{"id":154,"type":"book","title":"Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function","publisher":"McGraw-Hill Education","number-of-pages":"1248","source":"Google Books","abstract":"A Doody's Core Title for 2017!With Saladin, students make connections through learning outcomes and assessments, integrated media, and a writing style that clearly depicts anatomy and physiology processes. A consistent set of chapter learning tools helps students identify and retain key concepts while the stunning visual program provides a realistic view of body structures and processes.Saladin's text requires no prior knowledge of college chemistry or cell biology, and is designed for a two-semester A&P course. Users who purchase Connect Plus receive access to the full online ebook version of the textbook, as well full access to LearnSmart, SmartBook, and Anatomy & Physiology Revealed. The seventh edition's changes focus primarily on new science (30+ updates based on advances in science), new writing (30+ new sections of text to improve discussion, update terminology, and include new Deeper Insight examples), and 40+ new and revised photos and illustrations. Also, a new appendix has been added to the 7th edition to include the complete genetic code. Significant improvements have also been made to the Connect question banks.","ISBN":"978-0-07-340371-7","note":"Google-Books-ID: lmr8nQEACAAJ","title-short":"Anatomy & Physiology","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Dr","given":"Kenneth S. Saladin"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",1,7]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Dr, 2014). It is mainly involved in the transportation of LDL across the membrane.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Dr, K. S. S. (2014). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. McGraw-Hill Education.

Quantitative Human Physiology. (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-64018-6

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Response 2

Response 2

Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees

Response 2

Energy can neither be created, nor can it be destroyed. However, it can be converted from one form to another. There are two main types of energy named as potential and kinetic energy. The discussion post helped a lot in understanding the difference between the two types of energy. Kinetic energy can be defined as the energy of the objects that are in motion. For instance, a walking person or a speeding bullet both exhibits kinetic energy. Typically, the objects that are in motion exhibit some change in the environment as compared to the stationary objects. In contrast, potential energy is a type of energy that referred to the energy stored in an object and therefore is not relative to the environment of the object.

While discussing the types of energy in the context of atoms and electrons, the author Morrel in his research paper, highlighted that in the energy levels of atoms, valence electrons and molecules, there exists negative potential energy and kinetic energy (Cohen & Heine, 1961). According to the author, the negative potential is present inside the core of an atom, while electrons contain a significant amount of kinetic energy. This is because to attain stability, electrons are constantly moving from one shell to another, and as every object that is in motion possesses kinetic energy, so electrons also possess kinetic energy.

Typically, when electrons are in the excited state, they tend to move from one orbital to the other. Although, due to movement, kinetic energy is associated with them yet still they also possess potential energy as well. As potential energy is the energy possessed by the body due to its position, so when an electron reaches another orbital and stays there, it contains potential energy. This energy is converted to kinetic energy as soon as the electron started to move to the next orbital (Cohen & Heine, 1961). An electron possesses high potential energy when it is farther from the nucleus in an atom.

References

Cohen, M. H., & Heine, V. (1961). Cancellation of kinetic and potential energy in atoms, molecules, and solids. Physical Review, 122(6), 1821.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Retinal Detachment

Retinal Detachment

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees]

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Retinal Detachment

A retinal detachment is a disorder where one of the major components of the eye i.e. the retina, begins to disconnect from the place it is meant to be in. This is a medical emergency and needs to be treated as one ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5Oj0FFdY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spandau & Tomic, 2018a)","plainCitation":"(Spandau & Tomic, 2018a)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":106,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/WKtM8IGm/items/JHPVN4KF"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/WKtM8IGm/items/JHPVN4KF"],"itemData":{"id":106,"type":"chapter","title":"Recurrent Retinal Detachment","container-title":"Retinal Detachment Surgery and Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","page":"163-165","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","event-place":"Cham","URL":"http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_17","ISBN":"978-3-319-78445-8","note":"DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_17","language":"en","editor":[{"family":"Spandau","given":"Ulrich"},{"family":"Tomic","given":"Zoran"},{"family":"Ruiz-Casas","given":"Diego"}],"author":[{"family":"Spandau","given":"Ulrich"},{"family":"Tomic","given":"Zoran"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spandau & Tomic, 2018a).

The main thing about this disorder that it causes no pain and the patient might be unaware that it is happening. Such disorders are diagnosed by the symptoms that appear with it. Without proper recognition of the symptoms, the disorder may proceed to worsen the condition of the patient. The symptoms of the disorder include

The patients see floaters in their visions. The floaters are small dots that appear in front of your vision and move in various patterns.

The distorted vision which includes it being blurred.

A deterioration in the side vision also known as peripheral vision.

The appearance of bright light in flash form in front of the eye.

Visibility of a shadow over the field of vision that may feel like the effect of a curtain.

The risk for the disease includes many factors that cause the retina to slide away from the normal position. Some of the main reasons and the risk factors are:

Retina might dislocate from the position if it develops a tear and fluid collects underneath it. This forces the depositioning of the retina from the back of the eye. The main reason that this happens is because of aging and weakening of the organs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dv5h1Fd9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Spandau & Tomic, 2018b)","plainCitation":"(Spandau & Tomic, 2018b)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":107,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/WKtM8IGm/items/NDLMG5XU"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/WKtM8IGm/items/NDLMG5XU"],"itemData":{"id":107,"type":"chapter","title":"Total and Chronic Retinal Detachment","container-title":"Retinal Detachment Surgery and Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy","publisher":"Springer International Publishing","publisher-place":"Cham","page":"159-162","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","event-place":"Cham","URL":"http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_16","ISBN":"978-3-319-78445-8","note":"DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_16","language":"en","editor":[{"family":"Spandau","given":"Ulrich"},{"family":"Tomic","given":"Zoran"},{"family":"Ruiz-Casas","given":"Diego"}],"author":[{"family":"Spandau","given":"Ulrich"},{"family":"Tomic","given":"Zoran"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",1,27]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Spandau & Tomic, 2018b).

Another reason for the retina to be detached is the development of damaged tissues at the site of the retina. This makes the retina to be displaced from its usual position. One of the major reason for such scaring of tissues is the persistence of uncontrolled diabetes and other conditions that may affect the organs of the body ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fwMA5SRU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Haines et al., 2018)","plainCitation":"(Haines et al., 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":108,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/WKtM8IGm/items/RH3WBHIP"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/WKtM8IGm/items/RH3WBHIP"],"itemData":{"id":108,"type":"article-journal","title":"Metabolomics analysis of human vitreous in diabetic retinopathy and rhegmatogenous retinal detachment","container-title":"Journal of proteome research","page":"2421-2427","volume":"17","issue":"7","author":[{"family":"Haines","given":"Nathan R."},{"family":"Manoharan","given":"Niranjan"},{"family":"Olson","given":"Jeffrey L."},{"family":"D’Alessandro","given":"Angelo"},{"family":"Reisz","given":"Julie A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Haines et al., 2018).

As described in the first point, there is a tendency for the fluid to accumulate in the lower part of the retina. Sometimes this happens without there being a hole in the structure. This causes the same effect. Reasons for such a condition to occur involves tumors, injury, inflammation at the location of the eye or aging of the patient.

The condition is identified by an eye specialist using specialized tools and light to look into the retina. If the doctor has difficulty in viewing the patient’s eye due to bleeding then an ultrasound might be utilized to give a better view of the situation.

The treatment for the patient is based on the underlying condition and the extent to which the damage has occurred. Some of the treatment options, that are available if only a retinal tear has occurred without detachment, are:

Use of laser surgery to weld the tear that has caused the condition.

Method of freezing involves the use of local anesthesia paired with a cold probe that is applied to the location of the scar to help it heal and keep the retina in place.

The above methods are only viable if the detachment of the retina has not occurred. If there is suspected retinal detachment then the following procedures may be employed.

Injection of air into the eye. The air bubble would push the center of the eye against the wall that would help secure the retina in place and relieve the pressure on the eye. This would also stop the flow of fluid into the tear developed.

Drainage of the fluid that has accumulated in the eye and then replacing it is another option for the patients suffering from the extreme case ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2sAlTGHW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Falkner-Radler et al., 2011)","plainCitation":"(Falkner-Radler et al., 2011)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":109,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/WKtM8IGm/items/LYCDID2A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/WKtM8IGm/items/LYCDID2A"],"itemData":{"id":109,"type":"article-journal","title":"TRENDS IN PRIMARY RETINAL DETACHMENT SURGERY: Results of a Bicenter Study","container-title":"Retina","page":"928-936","volume":"31","issue":"5","source":"DOI.org (Crossref)","DOI":"10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181f2a2ad","ISSN":"0275-004X","title-short":"TRENDS IN PRIMARY RETINAL DETACHMENT SURGERY","journalAbbreviation":"Retina","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Falkner-Radler","given":"Christiane I"},{"family":"Myung","given":"Jane S"},{"family":"Moussa","given":"Sarah"},{"family":"Chan","given":"R V Paul"},{"family":"Smretschnig","given":"Eva"},{"family":"Kiss","given":"Szilard"},{"family":"Graf","given":"Alexandra"},{"family":"Dʼamico","given":"Donald J"},{"family":"Binder","given":"Susanne"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",5]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Falkner-Radler et al., 2011).

The overall recovery time for patients after the procedure is several months before the vision is fully restored to normal.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Falkner-Radler, C. I., Myung, J. S., Moussa, S., Chan, R. V. P., Smretschnig, E., Kiss, S., Graf, A., Dʼamico, D. J., & Binder, S. (2011). TRENDS IN PRIMARY RETINAL DETACHMENT SURGERY: Results of a Bicenter Study. Retina, 31(5), 928–936. https://doi.org/10.1097/IAE.0b013e3181f2a2ad

Haines, N. R., Manoharan, N., Olson, J. L., D’Alessandro, A., & Reisz, J. A. (2018). Metabolomics analysis of human vitreous in diabetic retinopathy and rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. Journal of Proteome Research, 17(7), 2421–2427.

Spandau, U., & Tomic, Z. (2018a). Recurrent Retinal Detachment. In U. Spandau, Z. Tomic, & D. Ruiz-Casas (Eds.), Retinal Detachment Surgery and Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy (pp. 163–165). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_17

Spandau, U., & Tomic, Z. (2018b). Total and Chronic Retinal Detachment. In U. Spandau, Z. Tomic, & D. Ruiz-Casas (Eds.), Retinal Detachment Surgery and Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy (pp. 159–162). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_16

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Reviewing The Concepts 3.1-3.3

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Reviewing the Concepts 3.1-3.3

Chapter 8

Central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord while peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and ganglia.

Shock absorption, support and nourishment and waste removal.

Neuroglial cells, nerve cell bodies, and unmyelinated axons are gray matter that increases surface area of cortex.

White matter is myelinated axon that increase rate of conduction.

Sensory, motor and association area

Primary somatosensory area receives sensation from different parts of the body and primary motor area send messages to skeletal muscles.

Homeostasis, control of blood pressure, heart rate, digestive activity, breathing

Smooth, well-timed voluntary movements

The limbic system 

Function as filter and regulate wakefulness 

Message Transmission and Reflex Center

Due to reflex action.

Autonomic Nervous System and Somatic Nervous System

Fight or flight and rest and digest

Sympathetic stimulation increases heart rate and constricts blood vessels.

Chapter 9

Continuous stimulation makes sensory receptors not responding. You do not notice water temperature after some time.

Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors , photoreceptors, chemoreceptors and pain receptors. The general senses: Touch, Pressure, and Vibration, special senses: temperature, light and chemical.

Something has touched us.

Protection and act as window.

Second part of eye help

With the help of rods and cons.

By vibration. Pitch is determined by frequency and loudness by amplitude of sound waves.

Transfers these vibrations to the middle ear.

Because the eardrum is larger than the oval window

Eardrum can be ruptured. Auditory tube can open.

It separates two liquid-filled tubes

Chapter 10

These cells have receptors.

Lipid soluble hormones travel through the blood and water soluble bind on the surface of the target cell.

Positive feedback mechanisms reinforce and negative reverse changes in controlled condition.

No major size differcne and hypothalamus regulates the function of the pituitary gland.

Growth hormone (GH); help in growth, prolactin (PRL): help in lactation, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); stimulate follicle growth, luteinizing hormone (LH); causes ovulation, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH); regulate cortisol, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) increase / decrease thyroid

Oxytocin; Stimulates milk ejection from the breasts and uterine contractions during childbirth, anti-diuretic hormone; promotes water reabsorption by the kidneys.

TH regulates the body’s metabolic rate and production of heat

It inhibits the activity of osteoclasts, decrease the resorption of calcium in the kidneys.

Glucocorticoids; affects the metabolism of fats and proteins. Mineralocorticoids; promote sodium reabsorption , and gonadocorticoids ; increases blood glucose levels.

Prepares bodies to stay and fight, epinephrine

Insulin; control blood glucose,somatostatin: inhibits the secretion of pancreatic hormone, gastrin; stimulates secretion of gastric acid (HCl) , and glucagon; convert stored glycogen into glucose.

Diabetes insipidus causes kidney failure, and diabetes mellitus causes high bold glucose.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Reviewing The Concepts 4.1-4.3

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of Instructor]

[Subject]

[Date]

Reviewing the Concepts 4.1-4.3

Chapter 11

Plasma makes up nearly 55% of blood and serves as a medium for blood transportation.

Albumins, globulins, and clotting proteins

Platelets play role in blood clotting; white blood cells perform different housekeeping duties, and red blood cells carry oxygen to lungs and to all parts of the body.

Leukocytes consists of neutrophils (3000-7000/mm3), eosinophils (100-400/mm3) and basophils(20-50/mm3) and are nucleated. Erythrocytes are 4–6 million/mm3, 45% of the total blood volume and are quite small, have no nucleus and have biconcave disk shape.

Neutrophils : Consume bacteria by phagocytosis

Eosinophils : Consume antibody–antigen complex by phagocytosis; attack parasitic worms

Basophils : Release histamine, which attracts white blood cells to the site of inflammation and widens blood vessels

Monocytes: Give rise to macrophages, which consume bacteria, dead cells, and cell parts by phagocytosis

Lymphocytes: Attack damaged or diseased cells, or disease-causing organisms; produce antibodies

Red blood cells have shape like a biconcave disk that make them specialized for delivering oxygen to the tissues. These are also flexible and can squeeze easily.

Hemoglobin helps to carry out oxygen.

Red blood cells are produced in liver and spleen and have no nucleus to control their number.

Chapter 12

Heart, artery, arteriole, capillary, venule and veins

A pulse is alternate expansion and shrinking of arteries

Swelled arterial wall

Arterioles have regulatory roles; prime controllers of blood pressure, act as gatekeepers to the capillary networks.

Precapillary sphincter

Inner layer

Middle layer

Outer layer

Reason of structure

Artery

Endothelium Lumen

Smooth muscle and elastic fibers

Connective tissue

Can easily stretch

Vein

Endothelium

Smooth muscle and elastic fibers

Connective tissue

Can easily stretch

Capillary

Endothelium Lumen

------

-------

Substances can move easily

By nearby skeletal muscles

Two pairs of valves make sure that the blood flows in only one direction through the heart; atrioventricular (AV) valves, the semilunar valves.

Left atrium AV (bicuspid or mitral) valve

Left ventricle Aortic semilunar valve Aorta

Body tissues Inferior vena cava or superior vena cava Right atrium

The cardiac cycle consists of systole phase and diastolic phase.

The human heart has four chambers, the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium and the left ventricle. Velves are also present to stop the backflow. The right side receives oxygen-poor blood from veins and pumps it to lungs then the left side receives oxygen-rich blood from lungs and pumps it through arteries to the rest of body.

Left atrium AV (bicuspid or mitral) valve

Left ventricle Aortic semilunar valve Aorta

Body tissues Inferior vena cava or superior vena cava Right atrium

The cardiac cycle consists of systole phase and diastolic phase.

Chapter 13

By birth defense mechanism are innate and immune response is adaptive specific defense mechanism.

Tears, skin, large intestine, saliva, respiratory tract, stomach and bladder.

Roams the body and kill them.

Small proteins produced by infected cell and attack at macrophages.

A group of at least 20 proteins that support body defense mechanism.

Damage of tissues

Engulfs and digests pathogen

B cells

Antibody remove foreign object.

The lymphocytes

Natural killer cell is activated and cytotoxic T cells activates due to cell mediated immune response.

Due to subsequent exposure to the antigen.

Active immunity is immunization of host and passive require transfer of proteins.

Groups of identical antibodies that bind to one specific antigen

Immune system fails to distinguish between self and nonself attacks.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Reviewing The Concepts 5.1-5.3

Reviewing the Concepts 5.1-5.3

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Chapter 14

We must breathe oxygen to stay alive as our cells need energy that plays an essential role in extracting energy from food molecules.

Most particles and disease-causing organisms are removed with the help of nose. Hair is present inside the nose that filters out these particles. In addition, certain cells in the membrane lining the surface of the nasal cavities and air tubules produce mucus. Cilia then sweep the mucus, trapped dirt particles, and bacteria toward the throat.

Food does not usually enter the lower respiratory system when we swallow as larynx provides a selective opening to the trachea. The esophagus is behind the larynx and food and drink must pass over the opening to the larynx to reach the digestive system.

Human speech is produced with the help of vocal cords which are the folds of connective tissue above the opening of the larynx.

Cartilage rings in the trachea held open trachea and give it the general appearance of a vacuum. Trachea will be collapsed in the absence of these rings.

The trachea divides into two air bronchi; which further divide into bronchioles. This is known as bronchial tree.

Air moves into the lungs when the size of the thoracic cavity increases; this increase causes the pressure in the lungs to drop below atmospheric pressure.

The tidal volume is amount of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal breath, which is (~500 ml). Vital capacity is maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled in a single forced breath, which is (~3400–4800 ml). Thus, vital volume is more.

Oxygen is transported to the body cells by the blood. The oxygen that reaches the cells is bound to hemoglobin.

Most of carbon dioxide is transported from the cells to the lungs through the bicarbonate ion.

The basic rhythm is controlled by a breathing center located in the medulla of the brain.

Carbon dioxide after its diffusion from the blood into the cerebrospinal fluid raises the hydrogen ion concentration by forming carbonic acid. This stimulates the chemoreceptors in the medulla and breathing rate is increased.

Chapter 15

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.

Mouth starts the mechanical digestion of the food. It also monitors food quality and moistens food. Moreover, teeth in the mouth grind the food and palate present in the mouth prevents food from entering the nose during swallowing.

Bacteria live in mouth and produce acid. Their activity is increased with the food particles. These erode the enamel. Blood vessels also cause tooth decay.

Storage of food and regulation of the release of food to the small intestine, liquefaction of food and initial chemical digestion of proteins. Gastric juice starts the chemical digestion of the protein in food.

Because food is still not fully broken down into molecules.

Bile assists lipase in chemically digesting fats.

Carbohydrates are digested in mouth and small intestine. Proteins and fats in small intestine.

Villi have circular folds in its lining.

Pancreas

Recovery of water and electrolytes, storage of faeces as well as fermentation.

Sight of food, chewing food and presence of acidic chime

Increase the surface area for absorption

Peristalsis pushes food along the digestive tract in the right direction

Chemical digestion

Small intestine.

Bolus

Liver

Amylase

Bile

Chapter 16

Ammonia, urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These are produced through protein digestion in stomach.

Kidney produces urine, ureter transports urine, urinary bladder stores urine, urethra transports urine from urinary bladder

By releasing hormones and changing sodium and electrolyte balances.

Glomerular filtration is blood filtration in glomerulas capsule, tubular reabsorption is removal of useful materials from the filtrate and returning them to the blood and it occurs in loop of Henle,

By controlling the secretion and reabsorption of hydrogen ions.

Under the action of ADH and is important for homeostasis.

ADH causes water reabsorbtion, aldosterone increases reabsorption of Na+ and atrial natriuretic peptide decreases reabsorption of Na+.

The solute concentration in interstitial fluid increase from the renal cortex to the renal medulla to conserve water.

Solute concentration of filtrate increases, solute concentration of the filtrate then there is water reabsorption.

Female urethras are smaller and male urethras are larger. This causes more infections in females.

Returns useful substances to the blood.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Rural ObesityPrevention Toolkit

Rural Obesity Prevention Toolkit

[Name of the Student]

Lamar University

October 6, 2019

Rural Obesity Prevention Toolkit

According to the “World Health Organization” (WHO), obesity is one of the most challenging public health issues of this century. This statement has been given due to the increased prevalence of obesity and its serious health issues. Been working for three years in a rural clinic in Immokalee, Florida, I choose to develop this topic to apply to my real situation as I learn.

Discussion

The term “rural’s” broadest definition comes from the “US Census Bureau”, “Office of the Management and Budget (OMB)”, and the “Economic Research Service of the US Department of Agriculture”. The Rural Health Intervention Hub (RHIhub), (https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org), mentioned that recent reports submitted on the rural counties show an increased prevalence of obesity in adults as well as children than their peers in the urban counties. The key factors given in the reports, as they contribute to the rural obesity, include: 1. Effect of poverty, 2. Little access to healthy and affordable activities, 3. Higher intake of high-calorie diet, 4. Ignorant of the nutrition facts and information, 5. Unavailability of the weight management services, and educational programs on obesity prevention, 6. Lack of opportunities for children to get engaged in physical activities after school, 7. Scary playgrounds and parks, 8. Unattended recreational places, pavements, bike trails, and workout facilities that promote physical activities and dependence on automobiles to fulfill the transportation needs, in spite of biking (Walls, et. al, 2011). The findings in research in children within a migrant community point out a substantial prevalence of obesity of 47.1% among this population (Rosado, 2013), and the causes appear to be multifactorial (Ip et al., 2018).

Rural Obesity Prevention Toolkit

Inside the “Rural Health Information Hub” (RHIhub), established in December 2002 as the “National Clearinghouse” of the “Federal Office of Rural Health Policy”, we find the Rural Obesity Prevention Toolkit. Multiple federal agencies support the toolkit. It provides comprehensive policy options. It presents evidence-based programs to assist healthcare providers in addressing obesity by emphasizing healthy eating and active living. The rural communities can implement these programs to cope with this threat. Recommendations given in the toolkit are specific to the rural settings, and might be used if adjusted to urban and suburban areas.

The Rural Obesity Prevention Toolkit is made up of eight particular modules. They include: 1. Understanding Obesity, 2. Creating an Obesity Prevention Program: where to start, 3. Targeting the Program Audiences, 4. Planning Evidence-Based Interventions, 5. Implementing Interventions, 6. Addressing Obesity, 7. Evaluating the Program, 8. Establishing the Prevention Clearinghouse. The Obesity Prevention Toolkit does not include ethics as part of their module; it is implicit in parts of the tools. Applying an ethical framework to prevent obesity and overweight will give good results at any stage of the developing or existing program (Have, et al., 2012).

Conclusion

We might think that in rural areas people get to exercise and eat more fruits and vegetables, but that is far from the truth. I work in a rural network clinic, and I can relate to the content in the toolkit. The Rural Obesity Prevention Toolkit will guide and assist with plenty of accurate information to use as a starting point for a weight management program in a rural community.

Works Cited

Have, M. T., Van Der Heide, A., Mackenbach, J. P., & De Beaufort, I. D. (2012). An ethical framework for the prevention of overweight and obesity: a tool for thinking through a program's ethical aspects. The European Journal of Public Health, 23(2), 299-305.

Ip, E. H., Marshall, S. A., Arcury, T. A., Suerken, C. K., Trejo, G., Skelton, J. A., & Quandt, S. A. (2018). Child feeding style and dietary outcomes in a cohort of Latino farmworker families. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 118(7), 1208-1219.

Rosado, J. I., Johnson, S. B., McGinnity, K. A., & Cuevas, J. P. (2013). Obesity among Latino children within a migrant farmworker community. American journal of preventive medicine, 44(3), S274-S281.

Walls, H. L., Peeters, A., Proietto, J., & McNeil, J. J. (2011). Public health campaigns and obesity-a critique. BMC public health, 11(1), 136.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

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