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Hypothalamus And Body Temperature; And Factors That Cause Variations In The Body Temperature

Response: Hypothalamus and Body Temperature

Catalina Tobon

[Institutional Affiliation(s)]

Author Note

Hypothalamic Regulation of Hormone Secretion

Response: Hypothalamus and Body Temperature

The hypothalamus, like the rest of the segments of the brain, comprises of interrelating neurons that are maintained by a high supply of blood. To comprehend the details of hypothalamic functions, it is vital to describe and identify numerous procedures of neurosecretion. One of which is the process of interactions between different nerve cells via synapses, which is termed as neurotransmission CITATION Mei07 \l 1033 (Meister, 2007). Synapses in the small gap in the middle of two neurons. That is why these nerve terminals are termed as presynaptic and postsynaptic concerning the direction followed by the impulse while traveling within the system. These transmissions of electrical impulses in the hypothalamus require the discharge of a chemical substance that facilitates the conduction process, which is called a neurotransmitter. The process in which the neurotransmitters are synthesized and secreted is very alike to that of protein hormone synthesis. There is an exemption to these kinds of neurotransmitters that they are contained within the neurosecretory granules that are produced in the cell body and they travel through the axon to the nerve terminal, from which they are released in the synaptic space.

There are four kinds of neurotransmitters, which are called serotonin, epinephrine, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine. In addition to that, there are more kinds of neurotransmitters discovered, some of which are neuropeptides. These kinds of neurotransmitters also function as neuromodulators, as they more or less regulate the actions of other neurotransmitters. Some of the noteworthy neuropeptides are opioids that are named so as they are also produced in the human body which a strong likeliness to bind themselves with substances such as heroin and morphine.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Meister, B. (2007, September). Neurotransmitters in key neurons of the hypothalamus that regulate feeding behavior and body weight. Physiology & Behavior, 92(1-2), 263-271. DOI:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.05.021

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Hypothyrodism

Hypothyroidism

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Hypothyroidism

Introduction

Human body is a complex combination of various organs, which work in coordination with each other to keep a balance in the functions of the whole body. It is just like a complex machine that is made up of large and small parts that work in mutual coordination with each other so that the machine can work properly and produce the desired results. In the case of a human body, the large and small parts of the machine are the large and small organs, like stomach, lungs, liver, hands, legs, and feet, etc., which work in a perfect balance and maintain the different functions of the body. This balance keeps the body healthy and fit for performing different activities in daily life.

But organs are not the only actors that play a vital role in the human body; there are other actors involved as well. These actors or parts are known as “glands”. Glands are small organs in the body that secrete particular chemical substances in the body for the use at a particular location or for dispersion is the body generally. One of the most important glands in the human body is the thyroid gland. Thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland that rests at the front of the neck, it produces and releases hormones that regulate the levels of energy in the body. In short, the thyroid controls the process of metabolism in the human body (Mullur, Liu, & Brent, 2014). The hormone produced by the thyroid is known as TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) and it is released in the bloodstream directly. If this gland becomes dysfunctional, the level of TSH in the blood decreases, which affects various functions of the body; this condition is known as Hypothyroidism.

Discussion

What is Hypothyroidism?

Hypothyroidism is a condition where the thyroid hormone fails to produce and release a normal quantity of the TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) in the bloodstream, which results in an abnormal level of metabolism in the human body. As TSH is the primary hormone associated with metabolism in the body, its direct effect happens on this function. Hence, it is clearly understandable that the people suffering from Hypothyroidism will have a slow metabolism.

Hypothyroidism is not an unusual disease; in fact, it is very common. It is more common than anyone can think. As per the surreys and various pieces of research, approximately 10 million Americans are suffering from this ailment currently. Almost 10% of the females have experienced a degree of hormonal deficiency or hormonal imbalance at any given stage of their life. Hypothyroidism is also known as the underactive thyroid gland.

Symptoms of Hypothyroidism

Many people who suffer from this disease don’t even know that they have any deficiency in their body. It happens due to the reason that the signs and symptoms of Hypothyroidism vary from individual to individuals. The symptoms also vary according to the severity of the condition. The condition becomes more critical when the disease is in its early stages. These early symptoms may not even be noticeable, as they are very mild in nature and does not affect the functioning of the body much. The earliest and most common symptoms that occur in most of the patients are fatigue and weight gain (Okosieme, 2016). These and the other symptoms start showing as the condition becomes more severe with time. The most commonly seen symptoms of Hypothyroidism in most of the patients are:

Fatigue

Increased sensitivity to cold temperatures

Weight Gain

Constipation

Hoarseness

Dry, rough, pale and patchy Skin

Puffy Face

Hair Thinning

Coarse, Dry Hair

Hair Loss

Decreased Libido

Heavy or irregular menstrual cycle

Slowed heart rate

Elevated blood cholesterol level

Enlarged thyroid gland (goiter)

Impaired memory

Pain, stiffness or swelling in joints

Muscle aches; tiredness, fatigue, and swelling of muscles.

Depression

Digestion Issues

What Level of TSH indicates Hypothyroidism?

Hypothyroidism can be evaluated and diagnosed by a specialist or physician, usually an endocrinologist with the help of a simple blood test. The doctor prescribes or recommends this test after closely observing the signs and symptoms in the body. The major test that is used to diagnose Hypothyroidism is checking the level of TSH in the body. The medical practitioner may prescribe to check the free thyroxin or T4, free t4 index or total T4 to diagnose the disease.

According to the physicians, 0.4 mU/L to 4.0 mU/L is the range for a normal TSH in a healthy human body. People who have a normally functioning thyroid gland usually fall within this range. If the initial tests reveal that TSH is > 4.0 mU/L, the doctor recommends a second test (t4) which is performed to verify the results in a little depth. TSH > 4.0/mU/L with a low T4 level indicates hypothyroidism.

Causes of Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism is mainly caused by two very common factors. One of the major causes of Hypothyroidism or thyroid dysfunction is the inflammation of the thyroid gland. In this case. A large percentage of the tissues or cells of the thyroid gland become damaged (or even dead), failing to sufficient quantity of TSH for a normal level of metabolism. Another, and probably the most common cause of Hypothyroidism, is autoimmune thyroiditis (also called Hashimoto's thyroiditis). It is a kind of inflammation caused by the individual’s own immune system.

One of the many other causes of Hypothyroidism that are named by the medical practitioners is the extensive medical treatments by doctors and treatments. In many cases during the treatment, of different conditions of malfunctioning of the thyroid gland, a portion or entire part of the thyroid gland is removed as a result of surgery. If the total mass of the thyroid cells present in a human body is insufficient to meet the needs of the body, it can result in hypothyroidism.

Hypothyroidism and Emotional Changes

Thyroid gland is not only linked to the physical functioning of the body but also the brain chemistry of a person. Along with affecting the patient physically, the under activeness of thyroid can also have a deep impact on the psychological health of an individual. Thyroid disorder can cause unpredictable mood changes and emotional distress.

Patients suffering from Hypothyroidism or underactive thyroid may feel stressed, tense and overwhelmed most of the times. They may experience depression, tearfulness, and emotional distress, on various levels. They also complain about issues like sudden mood swings and anxiety, in the form of anxiety and panic attacks. The individual may feel an overall lack of motivation and loss of interest in almost everything. The patient may have a dulling personality and may feel difficulty in concentrating or focusing on things along with memory problems.

Can Stress Cause Hypothyroidism?

Stress is one of the most common causes of Hypothyroidism, due to its much prevalence in the current times, it is becoming the biggest reason behind creating an underactive or malfunctioning thyroid. The thyroid gland works in coordination with adrenal glands, which are right above the kidneys. These glands can handle a limited amount of pressure and stress. When faced with pressure, the adrenal glands release cortisol that enhances the various functions of the body. Once the amount of stress exceeds the manageable limit, the adrenal glands shift the pressure towards thyroid gland which becomes hyperactive to take this pressure. The continuous transfer of this pressure causes the thyroid gland to become weak and exhausted due to continuous over-working., hence causing it to become underactive.

Complications of Hypothyroidism

If left untreated, the under activeness or the malfunctioning of the thyroid gland can result in much more complications. The thyroid gland is responsible for performing the most important functions in the body i.e., growth and metabolism. The hormones produced by thyroid have a great influence on

Weight

Body temperature

Cardiovascular health

Fertility

Ignorance in the case of Hypothyroidism may result in grave consequences which include heart issues, infertility, nerve injury, and even death (in severe cases). Lower levels of TSH in the bloodstream can greatly affect cardiovascular health. It can cause slow or weakened pulse, abnormal heartbeat rate and palpitations (Peeters, 2017). According to research, hypothyroidism can decrease the level of blood pumped out by the blood by 30 to 50 percent.

In severe cases of Hypothyroidism, the renal function or the function performed by kidneys is also affected as the blood flow in the kidneys becomes very low. The body may exhibit less ability to absorb sodium and excrete water out of the system, resulting in a high concentration of sodium in the blood.

Treatment of Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism is a lifelong condition. In many people, once the thyroid starts malfunctioning, it never goes back to the normal level. The medicines only reduce or alleviate the symptoms of the disease. The best and most effective treatment for Hypothyroidism so far is the use of levothyroxine (Levothroid, Levoxyl). Levothyroxine is a synthetic version of T4 hormone and it is usually used for the replication of the hormone that the body usually produces. This medicine is specially designed to restore adequate levels of TSH or T4 in the body so that the human body can maintain its normal functioning (Jonklaas, et al., 2014). Once, the medicine kicks in and the body starts regaining its normal levels of T4 in the blood, the symptoms of the disease may completely disappear or at least become much more manageable.

Once the treatment of Hypothyroidism is started, it may take several weeks for a patient to start feeling the difference. The physician usually prescribes multiple follow-up blood and hormonal tests to observe the progress and action of the medicine in the body. This whole process can take some time so the people suffering from hypothyroidism ad advised to be patient.

What happens if Hypothyroidism is left Untreated?

As Hypothyroidisms is directly related to the metabolism of the human body, it is understood that it affects the overall functioning of the body. It diagnosed in the early stages, the treatment of the disease becomes much easier but the treatment becomes much complex with the passage of time, as the condition becomes much severe. If left untreated, the condition may become much complicated and many organs of the body may become directly affected due to the due to the malfunctioning of the TSH producing hormone.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, it can be seen that the thyroid gland plays a very important role in the human body. It regulates various functions like digestive system, cardiovascular activity, renal functioning and reproduction (fertility) along with the most important task, growth, and metabolism. The under activeness or the malfunctioning of this gland causes a disease in the body is known as Hypothyroidism. The common symptoms of this ailment include, fatigue, weight gain, digestive issues, hair thinning and depression and it can be easily detected via a simple blood test. The disease does not have very serious consequences until unless it is ignored and left untreated. It can be easily treated with the help of Levothyroxine.

References

Jonklaas, J., Bianco, A. C., Bauer, A. J., Burman, K. D., Cappola, A. R., Celi, F. S., ... & Sawka, A. M. (2014). Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the American thyroid association task force on thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid, 24(12), 1670-1751.

Mullur, R., Liu, Y. Y., & Brent, G. A. (2014). Thyroid hormone regulation of metabolism. Physiological Reviews, 94(2), 355-382.

Okosieme, O., Gilbert, J., Abraham, P., Boelaert, K., Dayan, C., Gurnell, M., ... & Williams, G. (2016). Management of primary hypothyroidism: statement by the British Thyroid Association Executive Committee. Clinical endocrinology, 84(6), 799-808.

Peeters, R. P. (2017). Subclinical hypothyroidism. New England Journal of Medicine, 376(26), 2556-2565.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 6 Words: 1800

Immune Disorder

Immune Disorder

Author1Firstname Author1Lastname

[Institute Name]

Immune Disorder

The human body is protected by a defensive or protective mechanism called the immune system. This system is in-build in every human body and has the capacity to fight the bacteria or viruses that cause various diseases in the body. However, it can become weak with the passage of time if it has to "over-work" and the body has to fight against a lot of disease-causing agents, especially in a hostile environment. Such a condition can cause a number of disorders in the immune system and decrease the body’s ability to fight invaders, increasing the vulnerability to infections.

Immune system disorders are also commonly known as Autoimmune disorders. In this condition, the body starts attacking and damaging its own tissues. Autoimmune disorders can be caused due to a number of reasons; the body may start producing antibodies that instead of fighting with the infectious agents, start attacking the body’s own cells and tissues (Antonelli, et al., 2015). The treatment of this kind of disorders usually focusses on reducing the activity of the immune system.

There are many kinds of autoimmune diseases but some of the most common disorders are Rheumatoid arthritis, Systematic lupus erythematosus, Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, Multiple sclerosis (MS), Guillain-Barre Syndrome and Graves’ Disease. One of the most common autoimmune disorders, Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is a group of disorders in which the intestines of the patient become inflamed. It is further divided into sub-categories; Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn’s Disease. The common symptoms of IBD are abdominal cramps and pain, diarrhea (may be accompanied with blood), severe bowel movements, fever, weight loss, loss of appetite and iron deficiency (Neurath, 2014). The disease is diagnosed through blood tests, checking the complete blood count, radiological tests and stool examination. Although nothing beats self-care in avoiding a disease, IBD is also treated by the oral intake of anti-inflammatory drugs like balsalazide (Colazal), mesalamine (Asacol, Apriso, Lialda, Pentasa), olsalazine (Dipentum), and sulfasalazine (Azulfidine).

References

Antonelli, A., Ferrari, S.M., Corrado, A., Di Domenicantonio, A. and Fallahi, P., 2015. Autoimmune thyroid disorders. Autoimmunity Reviews, 14(2), pp.174-180.

Neurath, M.F., 2014. Cytokines in inflammatory bowel disease. Nature Reviews Immunology, 14(5), p.329.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Influenza Virus Strain H1N1 (swine Flue)

Influenza Virus Strain H1N1 (swine flu)

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Influenza Virus Strain H1N1 (swine flu)

H1N1 swine flu is an infectious viral disease which is the subtype of influenza A virus. It is an extreme transmissible respiratory disease in pigs which can transfer to the human when they come in contact with the infected pigs or environment. In the 1930s, researchers first discovered the virus isolated from the pigs and found in the veterinarians and producers of pigs. The symptoms of the disease include cough, fever, headache, and fatigue. Symptoms develop from 1 to 4 days. It ends within one week or 10 days through proper vaccination and medication. The doctors may use antiviral agents to control the infection but many scientists believe that vaccination is the best solution for reducing the disease. The most crucial complication of the disease is pneumonia. Besides, many patients face issue of shortness of breath, seizures, bacterial infection of lungs, and death in a few cases. Swine flu was observed in April 2009 in Mexico and reported as pandemic caused by the infection with HINI virus ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FBG9IRt2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Jilani, Jamil, & Siddiqui, 2019, p. 1)","plainCitation":"(Jilani, Jamil, & Siddiqui, 2019, p. 1)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1072,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/FXG4E8EV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/mlRB1JqV/items/FXG4E8EV"],"itemData":{"id":1072,"type":"chapter","title":"H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu)","container-title":"StatPearls","publisher":"StatPearls Publishing","publisher-place":"Treasure Island (FL)","source":"PubMed","event-place":"Treasure Island (FL)","abstract":"H1N1 Swine flu is a subtype of influenza A virus (a communicable viral disease), which causes upper, and potentially, lower respiratory tract infections in the host it infects, resulting in symptoms such as nasal secretions, chills, fever, decreased appetite, and possibly lower respiratory tract disease. H1N1 swine influenza is a common infection in pigs worldwide, and that is why it is also known as swine flu. H1N1 swine flu leads to respiratory disease that can potentially infect the respiratory tract of pigs. Sometimes, people who are closely associated with pigs or in the proximity of pigs have developed swine flu (zoonotic swine flu). Swine influenza viruses can potentially cause infections in humans if antigenic characteristics of the virus change through reassortment. When this happens, transmission from person-to-person is usually inefficient. Influenza A pandemics such as the ones in 1918 and 2009 can occur if the transmission from person-to-person becomes efficient. [1] In 1918, a deadly influenza pandemic caused by H1N1 influenza virus, also known as the Spanish flu, infected approximately 500 million people around the world and resulted in the deaths of 50 to 100 million people (3% to 5% of the world population) worldwide, distinguishing it as one of the most deadly pandemics in human history. In 2009, a new strain H1N1 swine flu spread fast around the world among humans, and the World Health Organization (WHO) labeled it a pandemic. However, the 2009 H1N1 virus was not zoonotic swine flu because it was not transferred from pigs to humans. Instead, it spread through airborne droplets from human to human, and potentially, through human contact with inanimate objects contaminated with the virus and transferred to the eyes or nose. This virus caused similar symptoms to those seen in swine, possibly due to reassortment of the viral RNA structure, which allowed human-to-human transfer. [2][3] Despite the name, an individual cannot acquire swine flu from eating pig products such as bacon, ham, and other pig products.","URL":"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513241/","call-number":"NBK513241","note":"PMID: 30020613","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Jilani","given":"Talha N."},{"family":"Jamil","given":"Radia T."},{"family":"Siddiqui","given":"Abdul H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",9,7]]}},"locator":"1"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Jilani, Jamil, & Siddiqui, 2019, p. 1).

Youngsters are more likely to get infected by the virus because strong immune response leads to the collateral tissue damage. The population who use porn meat for nutrition also has more chances for the Influenza Virus Strain H1N1 (swine flu). Moreover, it can be transmissible to the individuals diagnosed for heart disease, chronic diseases, diabetes, asthma, AIDS, or neuromuscular disease. The preventions of the virus include the frequent hand washing, avoid touching person who is having flu, avoiding touching hand on mouth and nose, and proper vaccination for 6-month-old and above people. For newborn baby two doses of vaccination is recommended to avoid the disease. In addition, hospital and nursing staff should take care of the environment where swine flu patient is treated to keep themselves and other patients uninfected.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Jilani, T. N., Jamil, R. T., & Siddiqui, A. H. (2019). H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu). In StatPearls. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513241/

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Intergrity Homework

Integrity Homework

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Integrity

The word Integrity is derived from a Latin word "Integer" that means complete or whole. It is the inner sense of being complete with qualities like honesty, or a consistent character Integrity comprises of honest actions that are honest and show compatible attachment to the ethical values and standards. (Ca-hwi.org, 2019) It also reflects on the actions of a person that how reliable or accurate the effects of an individual are. The opposite term for integrity is hypocrisy, and there is no internal inconsistency and the person holding hypocrisy has conflicting values that change the belief of the person. Consistency in this matter refers to remaining same in every situation. Integrity is applied to every action of a person on a daily basis.

Similarly, integrity plays an essential role in academics for the students. Each student should be responsible for maintaining the academic integrity at educational institutes. They should be free of scam and dishonesty. Cheating, Thieving, constructing information and using someone else's work is considered dishonesty in academics term. A student also needs to show integrity during exams or quizzes.

Sometimes it is difficult to find out cheating in exams or quizzes, but it is the situation where a student needs to demonstrate integrity. A student should not copy from his or his friend during the exam. They should show some responsibility and do not rely on cheating material. Avoid using the ideas from other person and even talking in the exams is against academic integrity. At the same time, taking shortcuts in exams or any assignment is also against academic integrity. Even letting someone else copying from your paper is against integrity. Therefore, a student should cover his or her paper during the exam and avoid eye contacts with another fellow during the paper. Discussions should be avoided unless the teacher allows.

References

Workplace Ethics & Professionalism. (2019). Health Workforce Initiative. Ca-hwi.org. Retrieved 25 March 2019, from https://ca-hwi.org/curriculum/soft-skills-training/workplace-ethics-professionalism/

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Introduction

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Introduction

Your Name (First and Last)

Institution or School name

Introduction

Spanish moss whose scientific name is Trilladsia usneoides were reported to arise from the Peruvian Andes these plants are also quite well known in the southeastern United States, the range of this plant has extended through Central America south to Argentina and Chile. Through research, it has been proved that Spanish moss is independent of edaphic factors and also they rely directly or indirectly on their atmospheric conditions for their food and nutrients supply. Although this plant has no proper hairy root system for the absorption of water a proper layer of absorbing scales is present over the entire plant which is used for the same purpose. The water absorption of this plant was studied briefly and in detail by many scientists, and it was proved that the external disc of the absorbing scale was only a covering and the unique feature of this disc is that it opens up when it is wet and closes when the conditions are dry. These discs also acted as tiny pumps and the main purpose of the disc was to pump in any traces of water that were present on the outer surface. Other scientists also argued that the disc action completely depended on the cohesive water power.

Spanish moss is an epiphytic flowering plant which is divided almost between latitude 38N and 38S. The main characteristics of this plant are basically that it grows in a humid environment and to grow well this plant requires support like a telephone cable or any wire. This plant typically present at the broad elevational range and based on the elevation of this plant the linkage with temperature and atmospheric moisture content varies significantly. It is also noteworthy that the species is certainly unable to survive at a higher elevation because such temperatures are too cold for its persistence. These plants receive their moisture from dew and rain, but they are not significantly affected by humidity and moisture. The Spanish moss prefers well light but humid place for their growth, and in some areas where there is a higher concentration of water then they limit their growth only to those places. These plants have the capability to absorb maximum moisture from the soil therefore, they are capable of surviving under dry conditions when water is not readily accessible. Another main feature of this plant is that they are capable of growing better on dead plants than on living ones. The growth pattern of this plant varies greatly as compared to other plants, this plant has a scorpioid dichotomous growth pattern where the development and growth of stem changes with successive nodes, the pattern is such that the left branch is dominant in one node and the right branch becomes dominant in the next node in each node the alternate fork is basically a leaf-like branch that is present opposite to the dominant branch. In the center of these forks secondary leaf-like structures appear. Spanish moss bear only one flower and each of the individual flowers lasts just for four days maximum.

The proper mode of reproduction and the nutrition pattern of this plant is still unknown however studies suggest that this plant absorb water and nutrients from the soil, but still research needs to be done in this field. The purpose of this current study is to find out the growth, reproduction and survival behavior of this plant. Although many researchers suggested different theories regarding the growth pattern of this plant there are still some confusions that need to be addressed in the future. So different researchers came up with different theories about this plant although a brief detail is present regarding this plant studies are still required to understand the living style of the plant.

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Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Iterative Evolution

[Author’s Name]

[Subject]

[Date]

Iterative Evolution

Iterative evolution A recurrent evolution of parallel or analogous structures in the growth of the same focal line. Studies have shown many examples from the record of iterative evolution. The evolutionary obscurantism is perhaps owed to the superseding morphogenetic regulation applied by specific regulatory genes. Evolution is a process of variations among populations that occur through a process of natural selection ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QQNR943A","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). Genetic drift is a process that occurs on variations. It was believed that genes that are most surviving in nature would be able to grow and selected for natural selection ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"17lwJRWA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). Various studies have shown that iterative evolution involved the development of parallel structures, for example, Aldabra Rail was a species that got extinct and disappeared and shockingly it appeared ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ldx42p7y","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","plainCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":271,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"itemData":{"id":271,"type":"paper-conference","container-title":"2015 8th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP)","ISBN":"1-4673-9098-4","page":"1210-1214","publisher":"IEEE","title":"Iterative evolution of feature space in text classification","author":[{"family":"Zhao","given":"Liutao"},{"family":"Ren","given":"Yitian"},{"family":"Yan","given":"Bo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Zhao et al.). Therefore, supporting the evidence that iterative evolution is true.

Evolutionary studies have evaluated fossils and identified that various species that extinct some in previous eras may have developed in the same locations with identical features ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6sJEFKHB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Slater)","plainCitation":"(Slater)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":270,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/X7M4778X"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/X7M4778X"],"itemData":{"id":270,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issue":"16","page":"4897-4902","title":"Iterative adaptive radiations of fossil canids show no evidence for diversity-dependent trait evolution","volume":"112","author":[{"family":"Slater","given":"Graham J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Slater). It is assumed that evolution is a process that occurs through natural selection whereas iterative evolution is coming back of similar species in the same locations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Xhz2epXF","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). The phenomenon needs to be evaluated of assessed through processes or theories however, it needs an ancestral origin ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YpwRQiLw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). This concept needs to appraised based on evolutionary processes and theoretical evaluation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"q8zI1GH8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). Several theories have been assessed to observe the changes and variations among species that occurred through evolution. An infrequent procedure that comprises the evolution of a sorts' analogous structures from similar ancestral ancestries however at changed times ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pMbRRbwz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). This shows that subsequently a species is acknowledged as vanished, a novel species may perhaps appear in the same place with tremendously similar features ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Qc5s8JTp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","plainCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":271,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"itemData":{"id":271,"type":"paper-conference","container-title":"2015 8th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP)","ISBN":"1-4673-9098-4","page":"1210-1214","publisher":"IEEE","title":"Iterative evolution of feature space in text classification","author":[{"family":"Zhao","given":"Liutao"},{"family":"Ren","given":"Yitian"},{"family":"Yan","given":"Bo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Zhao et al.). This shows that the phenomenon needs an identical ancestry.

Various contradictions occur in the theory of iterative evolution such as it needs an identical or common ancestor whereas studies have proved that there is no similar or common ancestor for species ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NGnbECsA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","plainCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":271,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"itemData":{"id":271,"type":"paper-conference","container-title":"2015 8th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP)","ISBN":"1-4673-9098-4","page":"1210-1214","publisher":"IEEE","title":"Iterative evolution of feature space in text classification","author":[{"family":"Zhao","given":"Liutao"},{"family":"Ren","given":"Yitian"},{"family":"Yan","given":"Bo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Zhao et al.). The singular problem existing in accomplishing the true existence of these ideas has a concept of common ancestor however, it has been also observed that several species may also exist to support the idea of iterative evolution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xkPrkckS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Psillos and Kariotoglou)","plainCitation":"(Psillos and Kariotoglou)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":272,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/GFLCL7VS"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/GFLCL7VS"],"itemData":{"id":272,"type":"book","publisher":"Springer","title":"Iterative desing of teaching-learning sequences","author":[{"family":"Psillos","given":"Dimitris"},{"family":"Kariotoglou","given":"Petros"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Psillos and Kariotoglou). This is, therefore, an evolution that still needs further investigation and examination at a different level to completely support the idea and concept if iterative evolution.

Aldabra Rail was evolved from a species twice named white-throated rail that became the ancestor. It took 20000 years for the Rail to redeveloped into a new species and evolved from this species ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Mr7PSgEA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). De-extinction is a process of extinction of a species but has a concept of re evolving from ancestors ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WbkzTV5q","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). Similarly, cloning is a scientifically defined process for the breeding of selective genes of species ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aHRFllRj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Psillos and Kariotoglou)","plainCitation":"(Psillos and Kariotoglou)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":272,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/GFLCL7VS"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/GFLCL7VS"],"itemData":{"id":272,"type":"book","publisher":"Springer","title":"Iterative desing of teaching-learning sequences","author":[{"family":"Psillos","given":"Dimitris"},{"family":"Kariotoglou","given":"Petros"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Psillos and Kariotoglou).

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1 Albara Rail

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 2 Albara Rail

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 3White Throated rail

The development of similar structures or species is a process that is common with de-extinction ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5KqXwQhC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). The process of iterative evolution does not exist in the laboratories as the process needs an ancestor and selection of species randomly ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XOvTVdPa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). The other theory that supports the iterative evolution is the reappearance of species de-extinction. Further research is strongly recommended in the repetitive discipline to evaluate and appraise the process of iterative evolution.

The theories have been assessed to perceive the changes and variations among species that occurred through evolution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hyWwFO7h","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). An occasional technique that comprises of the evolution of a species' analogous structures from the similar ancestral ancestries through at changing times. This shows that subsequently a species is acknowledged as vanished, a novel species may conceivably appear in the same place with tremendously similar features. This displays that the phenomenon needs an identical ancestry ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vgZQzsGZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","plainCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":271,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"itemData":{"id":271,"type":"paper-conference","container-title":"2015 8th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP)","ISBN":"1-4673-9098-4","page":"1210-1214","publisher":"IEEE","title":"Iterative evolution of feature space in text classification","author":[{"family":"Zhao","given":"Liutao"},{"family":"Ren","given":"Yitian"},{"family":"Yan","given":"Bo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Zhao et al.). However, the concept of a common ancestor is not proved yet. The difficulty with this iterative evolution theory is that it needs a common ancestor ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"23nMGPhx","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Psillos and Kariotoglou)","plainCitation":"(Psillos and Kariotoglou)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":272,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/GFLCL7VS"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/GFLCL7VS"],"itemData":{"id":272,"type":"book","publisher":"Springer","title":"Iterative desing of teaching-learning sequences","author":[{"family":"Psillos","given":"Dimitris"},{"family":"Kariotoglou","given":"Petros"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Psillos and Kariotoglou). No common ancestor of any creature has ever been found. The knowledge is pure assumption and unsubstantiated extrapolation from exponents of evolution, who do not understand what the given definition can or cannot lead to - what their claims about the process would look like in reality ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8VLcqla8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). Hence, studies have evaluated the concept of various theories that favor and support the evidence of iterative evolution.

Conclusion

Several theories still denied the concept of iterative evolution however, studies have shown that the knowledge of iterative evolution is vast, extensive and controversial among various researchers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DTJSF2qN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). Therefore, iterative evolution needs further detailed analysis of the analogous structures and evolution processes need to be studied in-depth to understand the concept of iterative evolution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0ziRS73z","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). The concept of evolution as a process of variations among populations that occur through a process of natural selection is identical with iterative evolution which also exists on natural selection ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4TFcSOCa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). Genetic drift was the other process that occurs on variations of genes. It was believed that genes that are most surviving in nature would be able to grow and selected for natural selection and is the reason to promote the concept of iterative evolution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SjgAX59J","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","plainCitation":"(Neumuller and Smears)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":273,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/N8EI9GI3"],"itemData":{"id":273,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing","issue":"1","page":"C28-C51","title":"Time-parallel iterative solvers for parabolic evolution equations","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Neumuller","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Smears","given":"Iain"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Neumuller and Smears). Various researchers have shown that iterative evolution involved the development of parallel structures, for example, Aldabra Rail was an example of a species that got extinct and disappeared and outrageously it achieved the iterative evolution ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XXrSdq5w","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","plainCitation":"(Zhao et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":271,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/qnvKw9vm/items/TIV8ZB3L"],"itemData":{"id":271,"type":"paper-conference","container-title":"2015 8th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP)","ISBN":"1-4673-9098-4","page":"1210-1214","publisher":"IEEE","title":"Iterative evolution of feature space in text classification","author":[{"family":"Zhao","given":"Liutao"},{"family":"Ren","given":"Yitian"},{"family":"Yan","given":"Bo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Zhao et al.). Therefore, supporting the evidence that iterative evolution is true.

Work Cited

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Neumuller, Martin, and Iain Smears. “Time-Parallel Iterative Solvers for Parabolic Evolution Equations.” SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing, vol. 41, no. 1, 2019, pp. C28–51.

Psillos, Dimitris, and Petros Kariotoglou. Iterative Desing of Teaching-Learning Sequences. Springer, 2016.

Slater, Graham J. “Iterative Adaptive Radiations of Fossil Canids Show No Evidence for Diversity-Dependent Trait Evolution.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 112, no. 16, 2015, pp. 4897–902.

Zhao, Liutao, et al. “Iterative Evolution of Feature Space in Text Classification.” 2015 8th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP), IEEE, 2015, pp. 1210–14.

(Mancini, Mark. “Iterative Evolution: Did the Aldabra Rail Evolve Twice?” HowStuffWorks Science, HowStuffWorks, 31 May 2019, science.howstuffworks.com/life/evolution/iterative-evolution.htm.)

(Irving, Michael. “Extinct Bird Resurrected as Evolution Starts over Again.” New Atlas, 13 May 2019, newatlas.com/extinct-bird-reappears-iterative-evolution/59639/.)

(“The“The Bird That Came Back from the Dead.” ScienceDaily, ScienceDaily, 9 May 2019, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190509101916.htm.)

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Lab Report

Question no 1Diffusion The movement of molecules to lower concentration from higher concentration is known as diffusion. Osmosis Diffusion through a porous barrier or any membrane is called osmosis. Osmotic Pressure Pressure that is applied to a pure solvent to avert it to pass into the solution by osmosis, it is called osmotic pressure, most of the times it is used in expressing the concentration of a solution.Hydrostatic Pressure When a fluid exerts pressure at equilibrium due to the gravitational force, this pressure is known as hydrostatic pressure. Question no 2Factors that change the slope of the curve: 1-Hydrostatic pressure2-Osmotic pressure3-Elapsed weight4-Weight of cell Question no 3 There will be no net movement of molecules when the membrane’s both sides have the same water concentration, on each side, it will be the same movement of water molecules. In theory, solution’s level will elevate, but it will be dependent on the container’s width and will be opposed by gravity. Question no 4

The membrane will be big enough for the water molecules, and they will easily pass through it, whereas, it will be small enough for the molecules of sucrose to pass.

Question no 5

The dialysis membrane is an artificial semi-permeable membrane that accelerates the flow of small molecules in a solution that is based on differential diffusion. It only allows passage of selective materials; this passage is dependent on the size of molecules. It is just like the plasma cell membrane that allows what will exit and enter inside the cell. Question no 6

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Lab Report 8

Lab Report 8

Author

Institution

Lab Report 8

A freshwater fish named as Goldfish which belongs to the family of Cyprinidae is most commonly seen in the aquariums. Goldfish is actually native to East Asia and this particular fish shows variations in fin configuration, body shape, size, and colors. A number of behaviors of Goldfish can be observed such as swimming upside down, stillness, scratching against the objects, lethargy, and illness. Behaviors like feeding, breeding, and avoidance of danger contribute to their success. Goldfish is normally termed as a friendly fish but the competition for food is considered as the only threat that these particular fish represent to each other. The competition for food among the various varieties of Goldfish can lead to starvation and stunted growth sometimes. This lab report will provide an insight into one of the most important behaviors of Goldfish i.e. reproduction or breeding.

Materials and Methods

It has been mentioned in the introductory portion that Goldfish is a freshwater fish and it is normally considered a pet fish. For any observer, the behavior of Goldfish can be easily observed in an aquarium where it is kept as a pet. On technical grounds, no one would be able to observe mating in Goldfish as they don’t mate but spawn. For any observer, it is advised to observe the movement of Goldfish because male Goldfish chase the female in a whacky fashion when they spawn. Such a movement sometimes lead to mild injuries as well ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"mFmmZju7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bjerselius, Lundstedt-Enkel, Ols\\uc0\\u233{}n, Mayer, & Dimberg, 2001)","plainCitation":"(Bjerselius, Lundstedt-Enkel, Olsén, Mayer, & Dimberg, 2001)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":555,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/R8Y3FDY8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/R8Y3FDY8"],"itemData":{"id":555,"type":"article-journal","title":"Male goldfish reproductive behaviour and physiology are severely affected by exogenous exposure to 17β-estradiol","container-title":"Aquatic Toxicology","page":"139–152","volume":"53","issue":"2","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Bjerselius","given":"Rickard"},{"family":"Lundstedt-Enkel","given":"Katrin"},{"family":"Olsén","given":"H\\a","dropping-particle":"akan"},{"family":"Mayer","given":"Ian"},{"family":"Dimberg","given":"Kenth"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Bjerselius, Lundstedt-Enkel, Olsén, Mayer, & Dimberg, 2001). The timing of this process is not fixed as it can be as short as a few days or can take place once or more than once in a season. So, one needs to be very careful while observing the movement of Goldfish after regular intervals. As of me, I used to observe the movement of Goldfish during late May through early June ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QAbxrlBn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schreck & Hopwood, 1974)","plainCitation":"(Schreck & Hopwood, 1974)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":561,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/KZU4EZ5Z"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/KZU4EZ5Z"],"itemData":{"id":561,"type":"article-journal","title":"Seasonal androgen and estrogen patterns in the goldfish, Carassius auratus","container-title":"Transactions of the American Fisheries Society","page":"375–378","volume":"103","issue":"2","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Schreck","given":"Carl B."},{"family":"Hopwood","given":"M. Lloyd"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1974"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Schreck & Hopwood, 1974). This is the time when the first spawn of the summer season can be witnessed. As far as the time of the chase is concerned then it is advised to observe spawn around 1 to 2 p.m.

Results

Mating Start

Goldfish gets ready to mate it develops white spots which run along its gills.

Following the development of white small spots on the male Goldfish, female Goldfish gets fatter.

Constant chasing of female Goldfish by male Goldfish.

Female Goldfish releases eggs in the tanks following the chase of male Goldfish.

Egg Release

Female Goldfish releases eggs when she gets tired of the chase.

Released eggs get entrapped in the plants and more often than not stick to the walls of the tank.

Male Goldfish will then release the milt to fertilize the eggs.

The whole tank gets cloudy.

Egg patterns

Color will be developed on healthy fertilized eggs while fungus will be witnessed on unhealthy fertilized eggs.

Hatching

Eggs will be fully fertilized around 4 to 5 days.

After seven days eggs will be hatched and speck can be witnessed coming out of the eggs.

These black specks will get attached to the walls of the tanks of plants.

All the above behaviors mentioned in the table can be well observed. These are all the behaviors related to the mating of Goldfish. Spawning process continues for several hours sometimes. During the spawning, process nipping can be witnessed on the tail and fins of male and female goldfish respectively. Fertilization process makes the whole tank look cloudy and it is advised not to carry out a water change. After hatching, newborns will either have or blue or black color but their color will change as they age and grow ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7gNhg3fp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schreck & Hopwood, 1974)","plainCitation":"(Schreck & Hopwood, 1974)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":561,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/KZU4EZ5Z"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/KZU4EZ5Z"],"itemData":{"id":561,"type":"article-journal","title":"Seasonal androgen and estrogen patterns in the goldfish, Carassius auratus","container-title":"Transactions of the American Fisheries Society","page":"375–378","volume":"103","issue":"2","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Schreck","given":"Carl B."},{"family":"Hopwood","given":"M. Lloyd"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1974"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Schreck & Hopwood, 1974). Newborn Goldfish which is termed as fry more often than not die of a lack of food. So, it can also be deduced that food is very important during the development stage of fry.

Discussion

The hypothesis presented in the report is well supported as it was observed in real time. The results can also be discussed in the context of parental selection theory as Goldfish is also choosy during the spawning process and when the spawning process start male Goldfish will keep on chasing the same female it selects at the start of the chase. In addition, female Goldfish will also continue to release to the same that started chasing female. Temperature is a very important factor in the mating behavior Goldfish because the chase is normally witnessed prior to the temperature or heat of the day gets too strong ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NFhMRh9U","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kobayashi, Sorensen, & Stacey, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Kobayashi, Sorensen, & Stacey, 2002)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":558,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/7GPEZMSX"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/jsvqEXt1/items/7GPEZMSX"],"itemData":{"id":558,"type":"article-journal","title":"Hormonal and pheromonal control of spawning behavior in the goldfish","container-title":"Fish Physiology and Biochemistry","page":"71–84","volume":"26","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","author":[{"family":"Kobayashi","given":"Makito"},{"family":"Sorensen","given":"Peter W."},{"family":"Stacey","given":"Norm E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Kobayashi, Sorensen, & Stacey, 2002). The temperature of the water also plays an important role in the mating process because if the water temperature stays moderate then spawning can be witnessed more than once. The population of the Goldfish does not experience a declining trend despite many of the newborns are eaten by adults. It is because female Goldfish lays thousands of eggs at each spawn.

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Bjerselius, R., Lundstedt-Enkel, K., Olsén, H. akan, Mayer, I., & Dimberg, K. (2001). Male goldfish reproductive behaviour and physiology are severely affected by exogenous exposure to 17β-estradiol. Aquatic Toxicology, 53(2), 139–152.

Kobayashi, M., Sorensen, P. W., & Stacey, N. E. (2002). Hormonal and pheromonal control of spawning behavior in the goldfish. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 26(1), 71–84.

Schreck, C. B., & Hopwood, M. L. (1974). Seasonal androgen and estrogen patterns in the goldfish, Carassius auratus. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 103(2), 375–378.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Life

Biology and Life Sciences

Name

Institution

Life

What is life?

Life is typically referred to as the quality that casts a fine distinction between living organisms and dead beings. Life is an umbrella term encapsulating varying characteristics such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, response to environmental stimuli, complex physical mechanisms and adaptations in relation to the environmental changes (Rice, 1969). However, there is no universal agreement of biologists upon exactly what makes the life up. There is not just a single fine distinction between living and dead rather various qualities define the phenomenon of life. For example, if we talk about movement as a hallmark of life; car and vehicles moves as well that are not living. A tree grows to its fullest so does a cloud. Living things has a definite structure so as the atoms of elements. Hence, combination of these trivial characteristics defines life.

What is living or not?

Anything that is living responds to the environmental stimulus, grows and develops alterations, undergoes reproduction, maintains homeostasis, builds complex mechanisms and new cells (Rice, 1969).

Adaptation: Living things are completely aware of their surroundings and the changes that are taking place around them; adaptation is the leading characteristic of living organisms referring to the acquisition of changes in response to the environmental stimuli.

Growth and change is another prominent hallmark of living organisms; they pass through various irreversible transitions of life involving structural and functional changes such as seeds initially seem dormant in appearance but contain full fledge genetic potential to start a life. Seeds are transformed into super colossal tree with various branches; a depiction of change.

Reproduction is referred to as the ability of living organisms to produce exact or slightly different copies of them. Reproduction might originate from single parent (asexual) or two parents (sexual). This characteristic is the crux of life.

Having a complex chemistry is another central characteristic of living organisms. For example, human being is a system of various organs that split into various tissues and ultimately cells. Cells are made up of cell organelles. Such trends can only be seen in living organisms, non- living organism only contain atoms and molecules.

Living organisms maintain homeostasis in terms of body temperature, acid- base balance, salt balance, electrolyte and water balance and so on. For example, when body faces shortage of water, our kidneys starts saving it and stimulate the hypothalamus to release hormones for inducing the thirst sensation.

When does life begin?

Life begins soon after the mating of female and male gametes i.e., eggs and sperms within the reproductive track of female called fallopian tube. This process is called fertilization (Cobb, 2012). The resulting entity is referred to as zygote that contains approximately 100 cells. After undergoing rapid series of development; a new organism is developed and life begins. However, in some organisms, life begins soon after a little mass of organisms is separated from the parent and grows as an independent organism (Cobb, 2012).

When does it end?

Life ends when cell stops working properly, organs fail to carry their functions and whole body systems are collapsed (Nikolas, 2006). For example, breathing is the process through which oxygen rushes inside the body and gets absorbed into the blood where heart pumps this blood to the organs; when blood reaches to the cells, oxygen is utilized for carrying cellular respiration that produces enough energy to continue survival of the organism. When there is no breathing, there would be no oxygen and no cellular respiration for producing energy and organs will die so the organisms. Hence, in biological terms, death is referred to as the phenomenon in which working of human body organs is stopped and cells die.

References

Cobb, M. (2012). An Amazing 10 Years: The Discovery of Egg and Sperm in the 17th Century. Reproduction in Domestic Animals. 47, 2–6. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0531.2012.02105.x

Nikolas, K. (2006). The Idea of a New Beginning: A romantic source of normativity and freedom. Philosophical Romanticism, New York: Routledge, 2006, 48-49.

Rice, C. (1969). The Vanishing Right to Live. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc. 29–31.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Lung Comparison: Surface Anatomy Including Lobes, Numbers Of Each, Fissures, Right Vs Left

Lung Comparison

Author

Institutional Affiliations

Lung Comparison

Lungs are the major organs of the respiratory system and are responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between body and the atmosphere. The lungs are pyramid shaped and connected with the trachea by left and right bronchi. The diaphragms border the lungs on the inferior surface and are placed at the base of the lungs. Both lungs are surrounded by pleural cavity which consists of two layers; visceral and parietal pleura. Both lungs are suspended over the mediastinum with the help of lung root. The medial surfaces of left and right lung lie within close proximity to various mediastinal structures such as heart, arch of aorta, thoracic aorta and oesophagus for the left lung and inferior vena, superior vena cava, azygous vein, heart and oesophagus for the right lung ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yPuzPKMC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Verschakelen & De Wever, 2018)","plainCitation":"(Verschakelen & De Wever, 2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":803,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/VAHI36HW"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/VAHI36HW"],"itemData":{"id":803,"type":"chapter","abstract":"A good knowledge of the lung anatomy in general and a good understanding of the anatomy of the secondary pulmonary lobule in particular is mandatory to understand the CT features of the normal and the diseased lung. In the first section of this chapter, the basics of lung anatomy will be discussed. In the second section, a description will be given on the relationship between lung anatomy and distribution of disease while in the third section the CT features of the normal lung will be explained.","collection-title":"Medical Radiology","container-title":"Computed Tomography of the Lung: A Pattern Approach","event-place":"Berlin, Heidelberg","ISBN":"978-3-642-39518-5","language":"en","note":"DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-39518-5_2","page":"3-19","publisher":"Springer","publisher-place":"Berlin, Heidelberg","source":"Springer Link","title":"Basic Anatomy and CT of the Normal Lung","URL":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39518-5_2","author":[{"family":"Verschakelen","given":"Johny A."},{"family":"De Wever","given":"Walter"}],"editor":[{"family":"Verschakelen","given":"Johny A."},{"family":"De Wever","given":"Walter"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,4]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Verschakelen & De Wever, 2018).

There is a difference between right and left lung in size and shape. The left lung is larger and narrower as compared to the right lung and occupies less volume than the right. The left lung has a cardiac notch as an indentation on the surface and provides space for the heart. The right lung has two bronchus while the left lung has single bronchi. Both lungs comprise of smaller units known as lobes which are separated from each other by fissures. The right lung has three lobes called as; superior, middle and inferior lobes. These lobes are separated from each other by two kinds of fissures; oblique and horizontal. The oblique fissure runs in a super posterior direction along the inferior border of the lung until the posterior border. The horizontal fissure runs along the sternum until it meets the oblique fissure. The left lung has two lobes called as; superior and inferior lobes and they are separated by oblique fissure ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Mr3Wslj0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Walker, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Walker, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":804,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/C3XU299I"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/C3XU299I"],"itemData":{"id":804,"type":"post-weblog","abstract":"The lungs are the major organs of respiration. They are located in the chest, either side of the mediastinum. The function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood. They achieve this by bringing inspired air into close contact with oxygen-poor blood in the pulmonary capillaries.","container-title":"Teach Me Anatomy","title":"The Lungs","URL":"https://teachmeanatomy.info/thorax/organs/lungs/","author":[{"family":"Walker","given":"David"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,4]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Walker, 2019).

Figure 1: The lobes and fissures of the right and left lungs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Tb2ErKhM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Walker, 2019)","plainCitation":"(Walker, 2019)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":804,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/C3XU299I"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/OnfrXiA2/items/C3XU299I"],"itemData":{"id":804,"type":"post-weblog","abstract":"The lungs are the major organs of respiration. They are located in the chest, either side of the mediastinum. The function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood. They achieve this by bringing inspired air into close contact with oxygen-poor blood in the pulmonary capillaries.","container-title":"Teach Me Anatomy","title":"The Lungs","URL":"https://teachmeanatomy.info/thorax/organs/lungs/","author":[{"family":"Walker","given":"David"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",12,4]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Walker, 2019)

References

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Verschakelen, J. A., & De Wever, W. (2018). Basic Anatomy and CT of the Normal Lung. In J. A. Verschakelen & W. De Wever (Eds.), Computed Tomography of the Lung: A Pattern Approach (pp. 3–19). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39518-5_2

Walker, D. (2019). The Lungs. Retrieved December 4, 2019, from Teach Me Anatomy website: https://teachmeanatomy.info/thorax/organs/lungs/

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Macular Degeneration

Macular Degeneration

[Name of the Student]

[Name of the Institution]

Macular Degeneration

Etiology

Macular degeneration is an eye disease that leads to vision loss. It is usually related to the age factor, and it is considered normally to be an incurable disease. More than ten million citizens of the US have been affected by the disease. The central portion of the retina is called macula. In macular degeneration, the macula of the eye deteriorates causing the inability to see the details of an object. A person cannot read, drive, or focus on an object. Retina is a layer inside the eye towards its back area. It is responsible for capturing images of the objects that the eye sees. These images are sent to the brain where they are identified and appropriate responses are generated by the brain. Degeneration of macula deprives a person of the ability to see the central part of the objects and the person sees a blur on the center of each object (de Jong, Geerlings, & den Hollander, 2019). At early stages, the disease does not affect the vision of the eye. However, in the later stages, the person loses the central vision completely. Two types of the disease exist; dry macular degeneration and wet macular degeneration.

The causes of macular degeneration are not known precisely. This is due to the lack of research and related sources. If the scientists are able to know the causes of deterioration of macula, they can find the solution for curing the disease. Until now, the following risk factors have been given by the researchers.

Growing age is the most prevalent risk factor for the disease. It occurs mostly in persons aged fifty-five or older.

Genetic factors are important concerning the disease. That is why children also demonstrate acquiring this disease. People with a family history of macular degeneration are more vulnerable to acquire this disease (Lambert et al., 2016). Further, the scientists have also indicated that people belonging to certain ethnic groups are also more likely to develop macular degeneration, for instance, the Caucasians have been identified to have more possibilities to have this disease.

Smoking is also linked with the disease such that it increases the risks of macular degeneration.

Diagnosis

In order to diagnose macular degeneration, various types of eye tests may be performed. The specialist performing these tests is referred to by the ophthalmologist or optometrist. He would do a comprehensive examination of the eye. Regular examination of eyes is advised by doctors to most of the people. The dilated examination of eyes performed annually for the patients can tell the doctors about the early symptoms of macular degeneration. The doctors will see a certain type of waste deposited on the base of the retina called drusen (Khan et al., 2016). The presence of drusen can be considered as a sign of the disease. Changes in a person's vision are not the earliest sign of the disease, as drusen begins to deposit on retina much earlier, and it could be only detected by the examination at this stage. The doctor uses certain eye drops to dilate the pupils. It helps the doctors to study the signs of disease on the retina.

Visual acuity examination is a standard method for checking the occurrence of disease. The doctor assesses the patient’s ability to see a symbol or letter in detail. The patient is asked to sit at a specific distance for recognizing the symbol and identifying its different parts. Amsler grid is another method used for the diagnosis of macular degeneration. It can be used by people to check their vision by themselves. It is easy to use. The grid chart is to be placed at fourteen inches away and the central dot in the chart is to be focused without diverting eyes away. If the lines focused appear to be wavy, or boxes appear to become large, or similar other abnormal happen, a visit to some eye doctor is suggested. Eye examination for checking vision and diagnosing macular degeneration may include fluorescein angiography for capturing images of the fundus. Other methods imaging fundus include optical coherence tomography, fundus autofluorescence imaging, etc.

Treatment

Macular degeneration is not curable in its acute or later stages. Certain treatments can bring improvement in the vision in some situations or delay the process of macular degeneration. For dry macular degeneration, the treatment given is nutritional therapy. Things with negative effects should be avoided such as extra usage of fats, lazy lifestyle, and avoidance of smoking. Antioxidants must be higher in diet, which will nourish macula. Supplements with increased vitamins also have positive effects.

For wet macular degeneration, laser treatment is suggested usually called laser coagulation. It has been reported to reduce the risk of vision loss. It involves the use of light (laser) to make thermal burn on retina and destroy certain structures. It also decreases oxygen consumption by the retina and makes a balance between supply and demand of oxygen. Photodynamic therapy is another step in the laser therapy. The abnormal blood vessels in the eye are damaged by the use of laser after injecting certain medication (Visudyne) into the arm and activating this medicine by laser light when it passes through the retina. One of the most effectively used treatments for macular degeneration is the anti-VEGF therapy. VEGF stands for vascular endothelial growth factor. It involves injecting a chemical known as anti-VEGF into the eye that prevents the forming of new blood vessels at the backside of retina, which will eventually prevent leakage of blood, serum, or lipids that scar retina and kill macular cells (Maguire et al., 2016). The treatment is most successful, however, it is usually discomforting for the parents.

Works Cited

De Jong, E. K., Geerlings, M. J., & den Hollander, A. I. (2020). Age-related macular degeneration. In Genetics and Genomics of Eye Disease (pp. 155–180). Elsevier.

Khan, K. N., Mahroo, O. A., Khan, R. S., Mohamed, M. D., McKibbin, M., Bird, A., … Moore, A. T. (2016). Differentiating drusen: Drusen and drusen-like appearances associated with aging, age-related macular degeneration, inherited eye disease and other pathological processes. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 53, 70–106.

Lambert, N. G., ElShelmani, H., Singh, M. K., Mansergh, F. C., Wride, M. A., Padilla, M., … Ambati, B. K. (2016). Risk factors and biomarkers of age-related macular degeneration. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 54, 64–102.

Maguire, M. G., Martin, D. F., Ying, G., Glenn J., Daniel, E., Grunwald, J. E., … Group, C. of A. M. D. T. T. (CATT) R. (2016). Five-year outcomes with anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration: The Comparison of age-related macular degeneration treatment trials. Ophthalmology, 123(8), 1751–1761.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Malaria

Sandeep Kaur

Instructor Name

Art 101

08 November 2019

Malaria

Notwithstanding certain developments in the previous year, the socio-political state in Burundi rests dangerous and the humanitarian condition insubstantial. Healthcare level factors such as low budget, poor management strategies to combat the outbreak in hospitals and insufficient resources have all led to the unstable condition in Burundi. 1.77 million individuals in Burundi need humanitarian help in the year 2019 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a7ksqppov1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":404,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"itemData":{"id":404,"type":"webpage","title":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period: Quarter 3 (January - September 2019) - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English Situation Report on Burundi and 4 other countries about Contributions, Education, Children, IDPs, Epidemic and more; published on 29 Oct 2019 by UNICEF","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/unicef-burundi-humanitarian-situation-report-reporting-period-quarter-3-january","shortTitle":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”). In 2019, 1.77 million people in Burundi need humanitarian assistance. With 710,000 individuals directed for support in the Humanitarian Response Plan 2019 (HRP), the state of the utmost susceptible in the community still displays tenacious needs and is predicted to be intensified by natural catastrophes such as rainfall and landslides ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yJWKIMa5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":404,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"itemData":{"id":404,"type":"webpage","title":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period: Quarter 3 (January - September 2019) - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English Situation Report on Burundi and 4 other countries about Contributions, Education, Children, IDPs, Epidemic and more; published on 29 Oct 2019 by UNICEF","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/unicef-burundi-humanitarian-situation-report-reporting-period-quarter-3-january","shortTitle":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”). The outbreak of malaria in Burundi has crossed the number of those affected by Ebola in the year 2019 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2qbb507mda","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":404,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"itemData":{"id":404,"type":"webpage","title":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period: Quarter 3 (January - September 2019) - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English Situation Report on Burundi and 4 other countries about Contributions, Education, Children, IDPs, Epidemic and more; published on 29 Oct 2019 by UNICEF","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/unicef-burundi-humanitarian-situation-report-reporting-period-quarter-3-january","shortTitle":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”). The major factor that has contributed to the outbreak includes climate change, for example, changes in the humidity in the atmosphere affect the breeding and biting habits of mosquitoes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OMuCLQ6u","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":404,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"itemData":{"id":404,"type":"webpage","title":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period: Quarter 3 (January - September 2019) - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English Situation Report on Burundi and 4 other countries about Contributions, Education, Children, IDPs, Epidemic and more; published on 29 Oct 2019 by UNICEF","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/unicef-burundi-humanitarian-situation-report-reporting-period-quarter-3-january","shortTitle":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”). Other factors include the interaction of infected people with the population without vaccination, awareness among communities, for example, the use of preventive measures such as coils and mosquito preventive insecticides in hospitals and homes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uXr0WniG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lok and Dijk)","plainCitation":"(Lok and Dijk)"},"citationItems":[{"id":410,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/8Z28J2EG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/8Z28J2EG"],"itemData":{"id":410,"type":"book","title":"Malaria outbreak in Burundi reaches epidemic levels with 5.7 million infected this year","publisher":"British Medical Journal Publishing Group","ISBN":"0959-8138","author":[{"family":"Lok","given":"Pat"},{"family":"Dijk","given":"Stijntje"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Lok and Dijk). The movement of people, high density of vector and inappropriate preventive measures are other significant factors that have led the outbreak out of control.

Impact

Overall 343,333 individuals, half of whom are teenagers and children, have established protection in adjacent republics, mostly in Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda. 31,459 are suffering from severe malnutrition and were identified and supported by UNICEF. The outbreak resulted in disastrous results for the communities and societies. Till 21 July 2019, a cumulative of 152 243 individuals were reported and it includes 65 deaths in 46 districts. A total of 5,738,661 individuals were reported by the end of July 2019 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CqMUvBvJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":404,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"itemData":{"id":404,"type":"webpage","title":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period: Quarter 3 (January - September 2019) - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English Situation Report on Burundi and 4 other countries about Contributions, Education, Children, IDPs, Epidemic and more; published on 29 Oct 2019 by UNICEF","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/unicef-burundi-humanitarian-situation-report-reporting-period-quarter-3-january","shortTitle":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”). The number shows the magnitude of the disaster in the society and its impact was even catastrophic on the people. People live in fear and it has created great turmoil. The disaster control program was initiated, however, it has not implemented in the management of healthcare facilities and other related control strategies in hospitals and communities effectively to control the incidence. According to a report forwarded by the World Health Organization, cumulative total of 5 738 661 cases and 1 801 deaths (CFR 0.03%) have been reported. Malaria in Burundi is deliberated as a global concern. The cases reported in the year 2017 were 219 million, whereas, cases reported in the year 2016 were 217 million which has represented the upsurge in the disease ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"MeSLqcgQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":404,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/AWPDD9E8"],"itemData":{"id":404,"type":"webpage","title":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period: Quarter 3 (January - September 2019) - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English Situation Report on Burundi and 4 other countries about Contributions, Education, Children, IDPs, Epidemic and more; published on 29 Oct 2019 by UNICEF","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/unicef-burundi-humanitarian-situation-report-reporting-period-quarter-3-january","shortTitle":"UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period”). The outbreak is continuing with a tenacious frequency across the country. Out of the 47 districts, only 23 have exceeded threshold whereas, 10 have touched the alert threshold.

Viewpoint

The Burundian healthcare facilities articulate that the statistics are poorer with 4.3 million documented cases and 1,400 demises this year ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2g6ub3u6a0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}Burundian YouTube Child Star\\uc0\\u8217{}s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“Burundian YouTube Child Star’s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":406,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/DG9JJ3XV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/DG9JJ3XV"],"itemData":{"id":406,"type":"webpage","title":"Burundian YouTube child star's death spotlights malaria epidemic - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English News and Press Release on Burundi about Health, Children and Epidemic; published on 13 Aug 2019 by Thomson Reuters Foundation","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/burundian-youtube-child-stars-death-spotlights-malaria-epidemic"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Burundian YouTube Child Star’s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi”). The IFRC’s East Africa disaster management delegate, Marshal Mukuvare, said several families amplified the danger of death by delaying pursuing medical management because they do not have medicines and money to recover from the disease which is a critical condition ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LHM5TgpE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}Burundian YouTube Child Star\\uc0\\u8217{}s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“Burundian YouTube Child Star’s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":406,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/DG9JJ3XV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/DG9JJ3XV"],"itemData":{"id":406,"type":"webpage","title":"Burundian YouTube child star's death spotlights malaria epidemic - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English News and Press Release on Burundi about Health, Children and Epidemic; published on 13 Aug 2019 by Thomson Reuters Foundation","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/burundian-youtube-child-stars-death-spotlights-malaria-epidemic"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Burundian YouTube Child Star’s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi”). The young Kacaman’s death has encouraged an upsurge of praises and flashed discussion about malaria in Burundi. The least concentration from the healthcare provider and lack of accountability in healthcare facilities has aggravated the situation in Burundi. The number of cases is increasing which has gained the attention of the republics however, the Burundian healthcare facilities are delaying prompt actions and strategies to reduce the outbreak such as community-based programs by healthcare providers ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uZ07lQNH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (\\uc0\\u8220{}Burundian YouTube Child Star\\uc0\\u8217{}s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(“Burundian YouTube Child Star’s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":406,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/DG9JJ3XV"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/DG9JJ3XV"],"itemData":{"id":406,"type":"webpage","title":"Burundian YouTube child star's death spotlights malaria epidemic - Burundi","container-title":"ReliefWeb","abstract":"English News and Press Release on Burundi about Health, Children and Epidemic; published on 13 Aug 2019 by Thomson Reuters Foundation","URL":"https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/burundian-youtube-child-stars-death-spotlights-malaria-epidemic"}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“Burundian YouTube Child Star’s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi”). The response plan alone is not sufficient to handle and control the upsurge in the number of cases of malaria in Burundi. Malaria is declared as a preventable disease by the healthcare specialists however, it is crossing the outbreaks of Ebola statistics this year.

Stance and Recommendations

The individuals, healthcare organizations and capitals along with efficient healthcare providers, organized in accord with recognized strategies can effectively decrease the incidence of new cases of malaria. According to the World health organization, building blocks to strengthen and control the outbreak in a society should be implemented in hospitals and healthcare facilities on a priority basis to eliminate and reduce the epidemic of malaria in Burundi. This building block includes governance that will imply improvements in the strategic policy framework, and improvement in the system design such as prompt service delivery to the patients admitted ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rKi5Ffif","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Elimina, \\uc0\\u8220{}Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(Elimina, “Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":408,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/N23U9X5F"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/N23U9X5F"],"itemData":{"id":408,"type":"article-journal","title":"Malaria elimination, Guide for participants","container-title":"World Health Organization","author":[{"family":"Elimina","given":"M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Elimina, “Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants”). Adequate financial resources, responsive and efficient workforce, availability and accessibility to cost-effective medicines and vaccines in the healthcare facilities can significantly prepare the staff and management from the future outbreak ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HgxqcQJE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Elimina, \\uc0\\u8220{}Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(Elimina, “Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":409,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/4ULCZGC2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/4ULCZGC2"],"itemData":{"id":409,"type":"article-journal","title":"Malaria elimination, Guide for participants","container-title":"World Health Organization","author":[{"family":"Elimina","given":"M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Elimina, “Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants”). Controlled measures, active and operative response plans, healthcare provider’s interest and effective collaboration with the stakeholders can prepare hospitals, societies and communities from future outbreaks ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PwzHnAJK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Elimina, \\uc0\\u8220{}Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants\\uc0\\u8221{})}","plainCitation":"(Elimina, “Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants”)"},"citationItems":[{"id":409,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/4ULCZGC2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/p8kwKNoG/items/4ULCZGC2"],"itemData":{"id":409,"type":"article-journal","title":"Malaria elimination, Guide for participants","container-title":"World Health Organization","author":[{"family":"Elimina","given":"M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Elimina, “Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants”). It is assumed that better preparation, planning and delivery of efficient services can lead to healthy communities and societies.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY “Burundian YouTube Child Star’s Death Spotlights Malaria Epidemic - Burundi.” ReliefWeb, https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/burundian-youtube-child-stars-death-spotlights-malaria-epidemic.

Elimina, M. “Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants.” World Health Organization, 2016.

---. “Malaria Elimination, Guide for Participants.” World Health Organization, 2016.

Lok, Pat, and Stijntje Dijk. Malaria Outbreak in Burundi Reaches Epidemic Levels with 5.7 Million Infected This Year. British Medical Journal Publishing Group, 2019.

“UNICEF Burundi Humanitarian Situation Report - Reporting Period: Quarter 3 (January - September 2019) - Burundi.” ReliefWeb, https://reliefweb.int/report/burundi/unicef-burundi-humanitarian-situation-report-reporting-period-quarter-3-january.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 4 Words: 1200

Malaria

[Your Name]

[Instructor Name]

[Course Number]

[Date]

Malaria

Introduction

A disease that appears in the form of high-fever and is caused by the bites of female Anopheles mosquitos is called malaria. These parasites have a long history of affecting the world population. It had different names in different parts of the world during ancient times as it affected almost every continent of the world. Malaria consumed millions of humans before its actual cause was discovered by Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran in 1880 ACE. It is reported that malaria killed countless soldiers during WWII that obliged the United States to intervene and establish CDC (Centers for Disease Control) that was originally focused on malaria although it widened its scope later. Currently, malaria is considered the disease of global concern because approximately half of the world population was at its risk alone in 2017 (CDC, N.P). The latest World malaria report (November 2019) states that: “there were 219 million cases of malaria in 2017, up from 217 million cases in 2016. The estimated number of malaria deaths stood at 435,000 in 2017, a similar number to the previous year”(CDC, N.P). The report shows the gravity of this disease. Now, malaria is a curable disease, but some African and American regions are still vulnerable to its lethal parasites. This level of seriousness of the issue compelled me to write on this. Since its cure has been discovered, a comprehensive study is necessary to explore the ways through which we can eliminate this curse forever.

Discussion

Although there are many references to malaria being a fatal disease in the Chinese, Mesopotamian, Roman, and Indian literature of millennia ago, but first recorded outbreak of malaria happened late 19th century in Italy which was later followed by the whole Europe during the 20th century when the great wars started. Soldiers of the wars were the first victim of these parasites. Score thousand deaths per annum became common in Italy and the recorded cases of malaria were about 2 million towards the end of the 19th century.

In the early days of malaria's outbreak, the physicians treated this disease by using quinine. Quinine is extracted from the cinchona tree’s bark. In those days, the cinchona bark was known by some other names as well. In today’s world, malaria’s treatment has evolved to be simpler, more effective, and guaranteed with the development of new medical facilities. However, quinine remains an ideal treatment for malaria even nowadays. The disease is treated by using chloroquine, artemisinin-based drugs, atovaquone, doxycycline, and others in modern-day (Drugs Institute, et al. N.P).

Malaria was thought to be eradicated in 1951. The context of this claim was the combined efforts of the US Army and the CDC. The CDC was established during World War II, and it was responsible to eradicate malaria in the areas around military bases. It carried out campaigns and ran several programs to combat malaria. The US army was also striving for the elimination of this disease. They ran campaigns on multimedia to encourage soldiers to use the repellent.

Malaria is common in more than a hundred countries of the world nowadays. Malaria is still not a disease that can be taken lightly. Evidence shows that more than four hundred thousand people die because of malaria every year. The number of cases reported to have an infection caused by malaria is more than two hundred and twenty million on average per year. Malaria is commonly found in Africa, America (South & Central), South Asia, and the Middle East(Carter, and Mendis, P.P 564-594).

The latest outbreak of malaria occurred in Burundi at the start of 2019. It is estimated that nearly half of the total population of Burundi has been infected with malaria. It has been stated also that this outbreak has claimed the lives of more than one thousand and eight hundred individuals until now. The reason behind such an epidemic loss is quoted usually to be the delay in declaration of a national emergency at the beginning of this outbreak.

The outbreak of malaria in Burundi at the start of 2019 was a huge pervasion of the disease. Though it affected a large part of Burundi’s population, yet it was confined within the borders of the same country. Therefore, it is right to declare it a pandemic, which applies to an infection that occurs on the global level. However, it is not right to claim it to be an epidemic, which affects huge masses of people within the same community.

The last reported case of malaria before the outbreak of Burundi occurred in December 2018, in South Africa. It spread across the community and resulted in the loss of a few lives. The government took necessary action, however, as soon as it appeared. People were given aid on the priority, and the case was solved within two weeks (Fact Sheet About Malaria, N.P).

The outbreak of Burundi has not expanded to the US. This is because the outbreak occurred in Burundi that is located in Africa. Burundi is located at a very far distance from the US. Therefore, the disease can't spread out across the borders (BBC, N.P).

The first person who was infected in the outbreak of malaria in Burundi has not been identified. The reason behind is the backward record system of the country for keeping track of events and individuals. The first person affected with malaria in this outbreak is unknown.

The travel to and from the region of Burundi has not been restricted and this is the cause behind the spread of malaria across the borders of Burundi. It has been reported that more than two thousand and six hundred people have expired out of this disease beyond the border of Burundi.

References

Drugs, Institute et al. "A Brief History Of Malaria." National Academies Press (US) (2004):. Web. 29 Oct. 2019.

"BBC - History - Ancient History In-Depth: Malaria And The Fall Of Rome." Bbc.co.uk. N. p., 2019. Web. 29 Oct. 2019.

Carter, R., and K. N. Mendis. "Evolutionary And Historical Aspects Of The Burden Of Malaria." Clinical Microbiology Reviews 15.4 (2002): 564-594. Web. 29 Oct. 2019.

"Fact Sheet About Malaria." Who.int. N. p., 2019. Web. 29 Oct. 2019.

"CDC - Parasites - Malaria." Cdc.gov. N. p., 2019. Web. 29 Oct. 2019.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

Mammals In The News



Mammals in the News

[Name of the Writer]

[Name of the Institution]

Mammals in the News

Summary of the Article:

The article focuses on the Mendelian Inheritance induced through Clustered Regularly Inter Spaced Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) in the germline cells of a female mouse. A gene drive produces a biased for the transmission in that particular allele of a gene in such a way that it is inherited at a greater frequency through the model of random assessment which was proposed by Mendel. Recently, a high efficient gene drive was developed in insects, which has leverage of the specific targeting activity on the DNA and provides a and provides a repair mechanism on the endogenous homology to convert heterozygous genotype into homozygous. The implementation of the laboratory rodents would enable the conversion of the genotypes that involve multiple genes. However, this is not possible because it requires time, cost and a large number of procured animals, to obtain a few individuals of a genotype. But, the efficiency of the CRISPR/Cas9 system is not yet been accurately observed in the mammals. In the study, a “CopyCat’ element is added into the Tyrosinase gene of the enzyme to detect the genotypic conversions, after the activity of Cas9 in the embryo and in the germline. Although, the defect of this system is that it produces breaks in the double-stranded DNA in the early embryonic stages, therefore known to be highly mutagenic. These breaks cannot be even resolved by the homology-directed repair mechanism of the DNA. When the expression of the Cas9 is done in the germline of the female mouse, this results in the repairing of those DNA breaks ; it copies the CopyCat allele from the donor to the receiver chromosome, which resolves the homology-directed repair, leading to the Super Mendelian Inheritance. Through the results, the study showed that the CRISPR/Cas9 gene driving system be used for the implantation in the normalizing of the complex genetic crosses that might come across in the laboratory mice and can provide applicability to combat a massive number of rodent population in the island communities.

Accessing the accuracy of the News Article

The news article assesses a brief overview of the article that has been studied. The news provided a literature review on the topics which discusses the introductory statements on the topic. A short paragraphical discussion was noted, which concluded the building of the genre drive called CopyCat (A Modified Gene Drive). The news favors the study in terms of the female mammals, i.e. mice that were being used, assessing the sister chromosomes in paired recombination that occurred longer than the males. “The mutations that were created in the males are known to be 25 percent than more which occurred in the males” news supports. But, the discussion segment analyzes the high rate of the which can either alter or slow down the rate of the CRISPR/Cas9 efficiency systems. The gene drive is induced permanently into the female's mice so it can be made sure that they pass the gene drive to the offspring. However, in the case of more effectiveness for the purpose, it should be injected to both parents.

A rodent gene drive might one day be used to eliminate invasive rodent species that can destroy island habitats and sometimes overrun crops. As is, the gene drive would not work in the wild, says Bruce Conklin, a human geneticist at the University of California, San Francisco, who wrote a commentary in the same issue of Nature. “By no means is this ready to deploy.” But the researchers have taken an important first step in creating a gene drive that could work in mice and possibly other mammals, he says.

Additional Questions:

I would email Hannah A. Grunwald. Her email is hannahg827@gmail.com.

The master on the topic would be Jennifer Doudna. Email address is doudna@berkeley.edu. She works at Doudna Lab University of California, Berkeley 512G, 2151 Berkeley Way #5230 Berkeley, CA 94720-5230

Nature

Link to the story: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/crispr-gene-drive-mice-pest-control-one-step-closer-reality

References

Tina Hesman Saey. ScienceNews A CRISPR gene drive for mice is one step closer to reality (2003) https://www.sciencenews.org/article/crispr-gene-drive-mice-pest-control-one-step-closer-reality. Accessed Feb 13, 2019

Hannah A. Grunwald, Valentino M. Gantz, Gunnar Poplawski2, Xiang-run S. Xu Ethan Bier, Kimberly L. Cooper, Super-Mendelian inheritance mediated by CRISPR/Cas9 in the female mouse germline. bioRxiv Jul. 4, 2018; doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/362558

End Notes

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 2 Words: 600

Meningitis

Tamar Osiasvhili

Instructor Name

Course Number

Date

Meningitis

Introduction

Our brain is covered with a fluid, which is a protective membrane. This fluid is sometimes infected by a viral or bacterial infection. This infection causes swelling and risks the functions of the brain and spinal cord. There are also likely chances of getting this disease after using certain drugs, an accident or cancer. Diseases have to be treated in time, otherwise, they may become fatal for individuals. Therefore, it is important to identify particular causes resulting in meningitis, which demands immediate medical treatment. Bacterial meningitis may be fatal and this may result in permanent disabilities including hearing loss, damage to brain and learning disabilities. When compared to bacterial meningitis, viral meningitis is not that serious and fatal, while this is less severe. People having a normal and strong immunity with viral meningitis are likely to recover on their own.

Symptoms:

The symptoms for meningitis include fever, headache, and stiffness in the neck. There are also other symptoms apart from onset symptoms, which include vomiting, confusion, which results in an altered status of the human mind. This also results in photophobia, which is the sensitivity in our eyes when exposed to light. There are lesser likely chances that symptoms may appear in children and it depends on their ages, however symptoms for meningitis may include slow inactivity, ill-temper, vomiting, and poor feeding ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fXa2q3Cd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(T\\uc0\\u248{}njum et al. 413)","plainCitation":"(Tønjum et al. 413)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":982,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/6LWH5CU2"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/6LWH5CU2"],"itemData":{"id":982,"type":"article-journal","title":"Meningitis","container-title":"The Prokaryotes: Human Microbiology","page":"401-427","author":[{"family":"Tønjum","given":"Tone"},{"family":"Brandtzæg","given":"Petter"},{"family":"Henriques-Normark","given":"Birgitta"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}},"locator":"413"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Tønjum et al. 413).

Diagnosis:

When meningitis is suspected, doctors collect blood samples or they may collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid. After having laboratory reports, causes for this bacterial disease will be identified, then it will be possible to diagnose the disease appropriately. Diagnosis of bacterial meningitis includes the Vitro and culture testing of antimicrobial patterns and later, antibiotic treatment may be suggested ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HkctLc1z","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(van de Beek et al. 544)","plainCitation":"(van de Beek et al. 544)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":983,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/5W2R6J3A"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/5W2R6J3A"],"itemData":{"id":983,"type":"article-journal","title":"ESCMID guideline: diagnosis and treatment of acute bacterial meningitis","container-title":"Clinical microbiology and infection","page":"S37-S62","volume":"22","author":[{"family":"Beek","given":"Dꎬ","non-dropping-particle":"van de"},{"family":"Cabellos","given":"C."},{"family":"Dzupova","given":"O."},{"family":"Esposito","given":"S."},{"family":"Klein","given":"M."},{"family":"Kloek","given":"A. T."},{"family":"Leib","given":"S. L."},{"family":"Mourvillier","given":"B."},{"family":"Ostergaard","given":"C."},{"family":"Pagliano","given":"P."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]}},"locator":"544","label":"page"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (van de Beek et al. 544).

Treatment of the Disease:

Meningitis may be treated with the help of antibiotics and Cerebrospinal fluid treatments and this has to be treated on time. Treatment for meningitis depends on the cause of disease in an individual. Immediate treatment is required for bacterial meningitis, however, a doctor may suggest antibiotics to avoid the spread of extra bacteria in the body. For a reduction in inflammation, a doctor may suggest corticosteroids to an individual.

Incubation Period of Illness and Convalescence Period

The incubation period for the illness of meningitis is a maximum of five days after having initial contact with the bacteria. In some people, the incubation period may be counted as 24 hours, which is a rapid appearance of symptoms of meningitis. While for viral meningitis, the incubation period is counted from few days to few weeks. This may last for only seven to ten days maximum, however, individuals having this viral disease may recover of their immunity can fight back with the disease. Bacterial meningitis may be recovered but bacteria causes life time disabilities of individuals being infected by bacteria ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TjGRnN4L","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(El Bashir et al. 616)","plainCitation":"(El Bashir et al. 616)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":986,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/P2XUIA7H"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/P2XUIA7H"],"itemData":{"id":986,"type":"article-journal","title":"Diagnosis and treatment of bacterial meningitis","container-title":"Archives of disease in childhood","page":"615-620","volume":"88","issue":"7","author":[{"family":"El Bashir","given":"H."},{"family":"Laundy","given":"M."},{"family":"Booy","given":"R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}},"locator":"616"}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (El Bashir et al. 616).

Chemotherapeutic Agents (Drugs Used for Treatment)

There are several treatments for meningitis if diagnosed on time. Initial chemotherapeutic treatment for meningitis is Ampicillin plus cephalosporin due to suffering of individuals from Hemophilus influenza. The recent treatment includes the cephalosporin due to appearance of gram-negative bacilli and Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole can be also used as a useful treatment drug ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eSHvG1jP","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ampel and Labadie)","plainCitation":"(Ampel and Labadie)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":989,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/6KSBUKGG"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/6KSBUKGG"],"itemData":{"id":989,"type":"article-journal","title":"Chemotherapy for bacterial infections of the central nervous system","container-title":"Western Journal of Medicine","page":"309","volume":"147","issue":"3","author":[{"family":"Ampel","given":"Neil M."},{"family":"Labadie","given":"Enrique L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1987"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (Ampel and Labadie).

Vaccines Available

With the development in the medical field, there have been vaccines, which are developed for the treatment of meningitis. Neisseria meningitides is considered as one of the reasons for causing meningococcal meningitis in individuals, while there are vaccines for the treatment of this type of disease ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HzYx7UkV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(McIntyre et al.)","plainCitation":"(McIntyre et al.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":992,"uris":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/XTDHFL28"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/F0XOCTdk/items/XTDHFL28"],"itemData":{"id":992,"type":"article-journal","title":"Effect of vaccines on bacterial meningitis worldwide","container-title":"The Lancet","page":"1703-1711","volume":"380","issue":"9854","author":[{"family":"McIntyre","given":"Peter B."},{"family":"O'Brien","given":"Katherine L."},{"family":"Greenwood","given":"Brian"},{"family":"Van De Beek","given":"Diederik"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (McIntyre et al.). As discussed, bacterial meningitis is fatal, therefore, timely treatment is important. For bacterial causes of meningitis, there are two types of vaccines: first is a meningococcal conjugate vaccine, which targets bacterial serotypes. The second type of vaccine for the treatment of meningitis is MenB, which targets specific strains with shorter protection gap.

How is Bacterium Transmitted

There are more likely chances in meningitis diseases that germs may spread very easily by causing meningitis. People who live closer are likely to have meningitis and suffer from this disease. Military and students who live in halls are likely to have this disease. The reservoir for Neisseria meningitides is only humans, while animals are not infected. The bacterium is transmitted through close contact of individuals such as kissing, coughing on someone, and sneezing without putting any handkerchief on face. Another source of bacterium transmission is smoking which also includes passive smoking. This can be also transmitted in those places where there are many people are in closer contact. While bacteria are carried in throat and this sometimes enters the human brain through bloodstreams.

How can the bacterium/illness be avoided

It is important for individuals to protect themselves from severe and fatal diseases. There are some prevention measures, which individuals may be directed by the doctors to avoid bacterium or one can follow general precautionary measures. These include having adequate rest, no smoking, avoiding meeting people who are sick. This disease mostly spreads because of prolonged and closer contact of people with each other. Transmission may be avoided with the help of chemoprophylaxis furthermore; it is also suggested to people living in non-epidemic conditions. Vaccines may also be used to avoid any further spread of this disease.

Any notable feature of the disease

The Neisseria meningitis causes rashes on human skin, which may be considered as a symptom and this targets human capillaries.

Works Cited:

ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Ampel, Neil M., and Enrique L. Labadie. “Chemotherapy for Bacterial Infections of the Central Nervous System.” Western Journal of Medicine, vol. 147, no. 3, 1987, p. 309.

El Bashir, H., et al. “Diagnosis and Treatment of Bacterial Meningitis.” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 88, no. 7, 2003, pp. 615–20.

McIntyre, Peter B., et al. “Effect of Vaccines on Bacterial Meningitis Worldwide.” The Lancet, vol. 380, no. 9854, 2012, pp. 1703–11.

Tønjum, Tone, et al. “Meningitis.” The Prokaryotes: Human Microbiology, 2013, pp. 401–27.

van de Beek, Dꎬ, et al. “ESCMID Guideline: Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute Bacterial Meningitis.” Clinical Microbiology and Infection, vol. 22, 2016, pp. S37–62.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 3 Words: 900

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Name of instructor

4 day meal plan for a stress eater

Stress eating is one of the practices that have seen many people gain unnecessary weight. To do away with this practice, many people opt to use different methods. The best method is to stick to a meal plan over a given period of time, like the one below.

Day 1(1631)

Breakfast: Eggs (155) with smoked salmon (208) and avocado (200).

Lunch: salad (152) and soup (200) and smoked salmon (416). You can also carry stew to your place of work in case you do not feel like buying the salad and smoked salmon.

Dinner: onions carrots and broccoli with any other vegetables that you find good with you. You only need to check on the calories to ensure they do not exceed 300 calories.

Day 2(1600)

Breakfast: soak oats (200), almonds (100) and yoghurt (200).

Lunch: Goat’s cheese (300), walnuts and olive oil (300). For the fruits the best one to use is avocado. You can also add a bit of soup (200).

Dinner: soup (200), yoghurt (200) and you can also have fresh coriander.

Day 3(1600)

Breakfast: grilled bacon together with sliced tomatoes and soup to get you going through the day(500).

Lunch: soup(200), add spinach leaves(200) and take with granary bread(400) to give the calories that you need to get going till you can have your dinner.

Dinner: Fish with plenty of vegetables and ensure that you take it with bread or your preferred starch with not too much calories (300). You need to make enough for your lunch the next day.

Day 4(1636)

Breakfast: yoghurt with berries (200). This will be important since you need a lot of energy during the day. You can spice it up with oats soaked in water overnight. (300)

Lunch: you can have the fish (300) that you made the previous day during lunch and add more fresh vegetables (200).

Dinner: chicken or turkey (284) with any salad (152) of your choice. Be sure to add avocado the meal (200).

Total calories for the four days: 6467

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Metabolism

Paper Title

Name

Institution

Metabolism

Metabolic processes are one of those processes that are taking place in the body every time. It is the sum of all those reactions which are involved in anabolism and catabolism. Catabolism is the reaction where food is broken down to produce energy while anabolism is the consumption of energy produced in catabolism for the formation of larger molecules, for instance, the formation of proteins from amino acids both of these reactions are significant for maintaining life. As in the produce, anabolism uses energy and catabolism produces energy so both the energies balance out each other. If the total power alteration is positive then at that time the excess energy is stored in the form of fat molecules, but if the total energy change is negative, then the body uses the already stored energy (Courses.lumenlearning.com, 2019). Proteins are metabolized by a range of enzymes in the body. Mostly the amino acids are used for the formation of novel proteins. If there are more amino acids the required or if the body is starving, then some amino acids will be directed for protein formation. Before entering into a new cycle the amino group must be lost, this amino group is converted into ammonia lipid metabolism includes the breakdown and formation of lipids in the cells which involve the breakdown of storage or fats for energy and also some structural and functional lipids are formed. The metabolism of carbohydrates takes place in the mouth when amylase breaks down complex sugars into monosaccharide in the first step of carbohydrates metabolism glycolysis is formed which is used in energy production (Vijayakumar et al., 2010).

There are three major fluid compartments which are intravascular, interstitial and intracellular. Fluid movement from these compartments occurs in the capillaries. The amount of water we lose should equal to the water gain. As long as the osmotic concentration is the same the body fluid in our body remains the same (Study.com, 2019). Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, and phosphate are the most important electrolytes in terms of functions. Sodium is responsible for osmotic pressure gradient; potassium helps to establish resting membrane potential in neurons after membrane depolarization. Chloride helps in maintaining hydration; bicarbonate maintains acid-base balance calcium provides hardness to bones while phosphate is also present in bones. Bicarbonates help to maintain the acid-base balance by being part of the buffer system. Acidosis means the excess of acid while alkalosis of an excess of base. There are two types of acidosis which are respiratory and metabolic acidosis. There are four types of alkalosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic alkalosis, hypochloremic alkalosis, and hypokalemic alkalosis. Carbohydrates intake is based on the glycogen depletion and the physical activity of the individuals (Trainingpeaks.com, 2019).

The metabolism of a body is significant in performing daily functions because it not only provides energy for daily activities but also balances out the energy consumed and energy required. In this case by the breakdown of fats and proteins the energy is produced and if in any case, the energy is more than required then it is saved in the form of lipids and fats. If the energy is less than the body uses the stored energy. This entire mechanism is regulated by the metabolism which also plays an important role in maintaining the temperature of the body by different means.

References

Courses.lumenlearning.com. (2019). Overview of Metabolic Reactions | Anatomy and Physiology II. [online] Available at https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/overview-of-metabolic-reactions/ [Accessed 11 Mar. 2019].

Study.com. (2019). Water Balance in the Body: Healthy Intake & Output - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com. [online] Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/water-balance-in-the-body-healthy-intake-output.html [Accessed 11 Mar. 2019].

Trainingpeaks.com. (2019). The Importance of Carbohydrates and Glycogen for Athletes. [online] Available at: https://www.trainingpeaks.com/blog/the-importance-of-carbohydrates-and-glycogen-for-athletes/ [Accessed 11 Mar. 2019].

Vijayakumar, A., Novosyadlyy, R., Wu, Y., Yakar, S., & LeRoith, D. (2010). Biological effects of growth hormone on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Growth Hormone & IGF Research, 20(1), 1-7.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 1 Words: 300

Military Actions And Activities, PAst Present And Future

Name

Professor name

Subject

Date

Military action paper

Military operations of the past, present and future contribute to environmental instability. Evidence also reveals that the military activities of United States have directly contributed to environmental destruction. More liquid fuels are consumed for these activities that emit climate changing gases and causes global warming. Engagement of America and other states in different military activities are further posing challenges to the climate sustainability. The developed countries like America and Russia are leaving larger carbon footprint on the world. Their incentives of maximizing national security has caused them to build global network of cargo, trucks, counter ships and supplies based of hydrocarbon fuels. This enormous infrastructure is identified as the prominent reason of climate change. The emission of greenhouse gases depends on the amount of energy and fuels used by the civilians. This has made US military a larger consumer of fuels CITATION Joa11 \l 1033 (Nagel). The world is still facing the consequences of the past military operations including the World War I and II. Researches reveals that these wars had played a prominent role in raising temperatures due to carbon emission and global warming.

The countries that are involved in military activities are themselves not safe from the potential threats of climate change. The most visible challenges include rise of the sea level and has convinced many states to think of alternative methods for building military weaponry. Alternative energy sources have gained much attention since the last decade with the aim of minimizing the risks of global warming. The military climate policy of the developed nations remains contradictory because they claim to increase the use of conservational energy methods but until now only a small fraction of hydrocarbon fuels have been invested. America is the larger consumers of the hydrocarbon fuels in the world that reflects its negligence of the climate change policy. America and Russian are also rely on hydrocarbon-based weapon system. Although there has been much debate on eliminating the use of hydrocarbon fuels but the countries are still investing in expansion of military operations CITATION Ben19 \l 1033 (Neimark, Belcher and Belcher). “Between 2003-2007, the war generated at least 141 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), more each year of the war than 139 of the world’s countries release annually” CITATION ICB19 \l 1033 (ICBUW). States have ignored the negative consequences of nuclear war. These activities are will also part of the future because countries are concerned about increasing power. Environmentalists have raised concerns about the implications of military activities and suggest implementation of international climate treaties. To control the deteriorating impacts of military operations there is need for shuttering military machines. Environmentalists also claims that reducing the pentagon’s budget will also shrink the capacity of waging war that will cause decline in the purchase of liquid fuels. The Green New Deal also reflects the need for addressing the issue of climate change linked to the military activities.

The argument claims that violent measures adopted by states for ending terrorist activities indulges them in military activities. However investment in military operations is continually increasing the treats of climate change. The Iraq and Afghanistan war was initiated by America in an attempt to take revenge from the extremist organization but the state itself generated million tons of carbon that harmed the world. These violent measures created more complexities because it targeted not only terrorists but also affected millions of innocent. Revenge never leads to an effective solution for ending evil from the world. Facts reveals that, “US military bought about 269,230 barrels of oil a day and emitted more than 25,000 kilotons of carbon dioxide by burning those fuels” CITATION Ben19 \l 1033 (Neimark, Belcher and Belcher). These statistics depicts that America is spending a large amount on purchase of fossil fuels that causes high-level carbon emission and toxic agents. These pollutants are raising world temperature and challenges the nature.

The present agenda of countries to investments in military activities is also increasing the risks of climate change. Opponent views that violent measures like war and torture are not appropriate for the environment and climate protection. “The US Air Force purchased US$4.9 billion worth of fuel, and the navy US$2.8 billion, followed by the army at US$947m and the Marines at US$36m” CITATION Ben19 \l 1033 (Neimark, Belcher and Belcher). This can be understood by considering the ramifications and after affects of Afghan war that were experienced by the entire world. Emission of greenhouse gases is against the idea of human welfare. America invested huge finances and maintained control over the territory of Afghanistan but the outcomes were negative including global warming. The war failed in achieving its purpose of eliminating terrorism but resulted in high carbon emission that raised world temperature. The criticism on global civil society becomes more valid when one considers real-life scenarios. America’s agenda of initiating wars for targeting terrorism is still criticized all across the world because it caused more misery by deteriorating climate CITATION Joa11 \l 1033 (Nagel). Terrorist attacks cause fewer casualties then other disasters like car accidents and homicides but the state is inclined to strengthen its military base. The argument claims that war brings destruction and undermines the safe environment concept but countries are neglecting their responsibility towards climate protection.

The role of US in invading Iraq depicts that the state failed to accept the common agenda of Global Civil Society of avoiding war and violence. “Much disagreement exists on the humanitarian justification of the invasion of Iraq. Nonetheless, the invasion and its aftermath offer the opportunity for reflecting in some detail on how emerging standards of humanitarian intervention might be applied in practice” CITATION Jam041 \l 1033 (Cockayne and Samii). This reflects that the means adopted by America had been brutal and against the political ideology of civility on which the notion of global peace was based. The disagreement between countries reflects that the developments failed to implement a single criteria for the acceptance of humanitarian role of states. The invasion in Iraq presented two views on humanitarian as US agenda was to fight against terrorism for the protection of world. This further created confusion about the exact role of global civil society that was actually aimed at protection of the rights of all people.

Climate change and pollutions are interlinked because future military activities are having direct and indirect impacts on global environment. With economic development the countries have invested in military with the aim of maximizing national security. The developed countries like US, China and Russia will invest more in military operations that indicates that the risks will be apparent in future. Military of these countries believe that they are immune to climate change. Negotiations among countries on climate change were made for the first time in Kyoto Protocol 1997 CITATION ICB19 \l 1033 (ICBUW). The agenda was to limit the role of military for resolving the issues of climate change. However no significant changes occurred because the governments of these counties pays little attention to climate sustainability. Each developed country is still spending a larger part of its GDP in the expansion of military base and related activities without considering the negative consequences. Every country is still manufacturing more weapons and consuming more hydrocarbon fuels. In 1970s the soviet invasion of Afghanistan and Iranian Revolution are also practical examples of excessive use of oils. Bush administration pulled America out of the Kyoto protocol claiming that investing in global warming controls is expensive and unaffordable for the country CITATION Joa11 \l 1033 (Nagel). The present situation also depicts lack of state’s interest to protect the climate as Trump denied to sign the Paris Agreement of Climate. This indicates that countries are not willing to reduce their military carbon emission.

The examination of the military activities reveals that they are intensifying the conditions of global warming. A tradeoff is going on in US for budgeting between materialized defense and environmental security. The facts also depicts that US military is contributing to 30 percent of the world’s global warming. Environmentalists argue that the states must now invest in activities that promote climate sustainability by cutting the military budget. There is need for taking adequate actions for stopping the military activities that will threaten the environment sustainability and contributes to climate change at dangerous level. Governments of the developed countries must integrate climate protection policy in their agendas and limit military expansion that pose challenges for the future generations. There is need for global action to eliminate the risky military practices that causes massive carbon emission leading to global warming. Both combat and non-combat operations are contributing to greenhouse gas emission that the world needs to stop. US is still fueling the military machines that irrespective of the significant damages it already did to the world in its 9/11 military actions. In the year 2017 58.4 metric tons of carbon dioxide was released that rose global warming. Most of the carbon emission is the result of physical installation, building of sites and operations carried by the military. Similarly a larger portion of the energy is consumed by the ships, planes and vehicles that require massive fuels. Multiple gallons of fuel are needed for running a single jet that also increase risks of climate change.

Personal insights

I think that military activities of the past, present and future directly caused climate change. This is due to the fact that rise in sea levels resulting from global warming threatens the military installations. The most common reason for changes in climate include the emission of carbon. I think that the developed countries are more responsible for climate change because they are more concerned about national security and every year spend more money to expand their military. The role of military operations of the past made it clear that these activities are linked to the emission of greenhouse gases that leads to global warming. I also believe that America is among the developed countries that contributed largely towards global warming since the last decade due to its involvement in Afghan war. Research studies and data has confirmed that these operations resulted in carbon emission of million of tons. Our environment is still facing the consequences of the series of war including World War I and II. However the countries are still reluctant to invest in their military base. Data also reveals that American’s military activities in Afghanistan had contributed to global warming.

I agree with the viewpoints of environmentalists because they are concerned about protecting the climate for the future generations. This required cutting expenditures of military and engaging countries to become a part of climate protection policy. However countries are focusing in nationalist interests and ignoring the global threats. I think that it is important for the countries to realize that climate change deteriorates the quality of life and affect all humans. I believe that becoming part of military operations is due to lack of rational approach. The states are only taking decisions that could expand their national security but are least concerned about the environment. It is also criticized by environmentalists that US had announced its policy of relying on conservative methods for military activities but larger part still comes from hydrocarbon fuels. The only possible solution that could allow the world to fight with the climate war is by reducing the use of fossil fuels. America is a largest consumer of fossil fuels because it is building its cargo, military ships and air force that are based on hydrocarbon fuels.

I think that the developed countries are not taking the issue of climate change seriously. Only little amount from budget is spent on green policy mission. America’s agenda of raising military budget each year is a clear picture of how current activities will further worsen the climate. I also believe that the world is already paying huge cost of these military activities in the form of floods, droughts, wildfires and desertification’s. If the countries continue to increase their military actions that will further raise the sea level and possibilities of floods. I think that an effective solution is to implement international climate treaty for preventing nations from engaging in military activities. I believe that the developed countries like US, China and Russia will invest more in military operations that indicates that the risks will be apparent in future. This is important not only for the survival of the current generation but also for the future generations. The Green New Deal also reflects the need for addressing the issue of climate change by making it compulsory for the nations to minimize their military operations. I feel that developed countries like America, China and Russia have bigger responsibility towards climate protection.

Work cited

BIBLIOGRAPHY Cockayne, James and Cyrus Samii. "The Iraq Crisis and World Order: Structural and Normative Challenges." International Peace Academy (2004).

ICBUW. CLIMATE CHANGE and the responsibility of the Military . 2019. 12 09 2019 <http://www.bandepleteduranium.org/en/climate-change-and-the-responsibility-of-the-milit>.

Nagel, Joane. "CLIMATE CHANGE, PUBLIC OPINION, AND THE MILITARY SECURITY COMPLEX." The Sociological Quarterly 5.2 (2011): 203-210.

Neimark, Benjamin, Oliver Belcher and Oliver Belcher. US military is a bigger polluter than as many as 140 countries – shrinking this war machine is a must . 2019. 12 09 2019 <http://theconversation.com/us-military-is-a-bigger-polluter-than-as-many-as-140-countries-shrinking-this-war-machine-is-a-must-119269>.

Subject: Biology and Life Sciences

Pages: 7 Words: 2100

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